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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNFTED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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THE 

History and Romance 



OF 



Ancient Enipires 



The Rise to Power, the Conquest, Domin- 
ion and Downfall, of the Powerful 
Nations of Antiquity. 



BY 

d\ M: STEVANS 



CHICAGO: 

THE POPULAR PUBLISHING CO., 

PUBLISHERS. 



19279 

JL-Jtorary of Congress 

I "^ Wo Copies Received 
JUL 13 1900 

Coftyrigfit «ntry 

SECOND COPY. 

OeKvered to 

ORDER DIVISION, 
JUL 25 1900 



66217 



Copyright, 1900, 

BY 

C. M. STEVANS. 



BEQAN PRINTING HOUSE, CHICAGO 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction - - - - - 5 

The; Chai^d^ans - - - - 15 

Thb PHmNiciANS - - - - 19 

The; Carthage;nians - - - 27 

The; Ethiopians - - - - 31 

The; Egyptians - - - - 36 

The; He;bre;ws - - - - - 49 

Th^ Arabians .... 66 

The I^YDiANS - - . - - 78 

The Assyrians - - - - 85 

The Babylonians - - - - 100 

The Medes ----- 108 

The Persians - - - - -115 

The Parthians - - - - 132 

The Hindoos - - - - - i47 

The Orientals - - - - 153 

(3) 



4 Table of Contents. 

PAGE 

The Grecians - - - • - i68 

The Romans - - - - 229 

* The Byzantine Empire - - - 307 

The Dark Ages - - - - 314 

The Feudal System . - • - 318 

Chivalry - - - - - 321 

The Crusades . - • - 324 



INTRODUCTION. 



THE ARYANS. 

The Aryan family of nations occupy most of the first 
six thousand years of the world's history. From the 
earliest obtainable sources of information, it is shown 
that this Indo-European branch of the human race has 
always possessed, wherever it spread, the finest and 
most fruitful portions of the earth. 

The story of the strange races these people encoun- 
tered in their pre-historic migration from their primi- 
tive home, what wars they fought, what triumphs they 
won, what heroes they developed, can never be recov- 
ered from that ancient night of human life. But there 
is evidence enough to satisfy the seeker into the past 
that this energetic and superior people subjugated the 
native population wherever they went, and gradually 
absorbed it into one consanguineous body. 

The original Aryan language was correspondingly 
affected ; and, at the dawn of authentic history, Europe 
was peopled with vast hordes of different Aryan tribes 
knowing no relationship or similarity of interests. 

For more than a thousand years Aryan fought Aryan 
for the glory of supremacy, and in turn the different 
divisions of the Aryan family became powerful and 

(5) 



6 Ancient Empires. 

then fell under a greater rival power. When the world- 
wide Greek dominion was broken, the Latin rose and 
in its turn gave way to the Teutonic. In the Latin 
family the Spanish and French seemed, in more recent 
times, about to become world conquerors, but grad- 
ually lost in comparative strength before the expansion 
and progress of the German and English. 

The close of the nineteenth century shows the Aryan 
race in its most rapid development with the Teutonic 
nations far in advance. The inclination of the Teutonic 
family is for peace and, in the evolutions of nations, the 
fittest is doubtless prevailing toward the ends of the 
best civilization obtainable among men. 

THE SOURCES OF HISTORY. 

Architectural monuments, sculptured records and 
household fragments, are the three chief sources of in- 
formation concerning the fabulous period of ancient 
history. The world has been the home of many races 
of men that have disappeared, leaving no trace which 
gives any accurate knowledge of their character or 
achievements. A few weapons, household utensils and 
ornaments found in their tombs and in the ruins of 
their dwelling places are all that remain to indicate the 
existence of these forefathers of the human race. 

The lake dwellers of Switzerland, the numerous in- 
habitants of the age of stone and the age of bronze, the 
mound builders of the Mississippi Valley and the build- 
ers of shell mounds in Denmark and India are exam- 
ples of those extinct races. 



Introduction. . 7 

Recent discoveries of the fragmentary remains of 
these ancient people have added greatly to our meager 
knowledge of them. The Earl of Arundel brought to 
England from Smyrna the Parian Marble which con- 
tains, chronologically, the most important events in 
Grecian history from the earliest period to 355 B. C. 
Sir Henry Rawlinson discovered the Assyrian Canon 
which consists of numerous chronological tablets made 
during the reign of Sardonapalus. It contains the As- 
syrian chronology in which is the verified date of a 
solar eclipse occurring June 15, 763 B. C. Fragments 
of the Fasti Capitolini unearthed at Rome in 1547, 
1817 and 1818 contain lists of Roman Magistrates and 
triumphs between the beginning of the Roman Repub- 
lic and the close of the reign of Augustus. 

During Napoleon Bonaparte's expedition into Egypt 
in 1798, a French military engineer discovered a cu- 
riously carved tablet of basalt near the Rosetta mouth 
of the Nile. This precious relic was captured by the 
English when they defeated the French forces in 
Egypt. Copies were at once made and distributed 
among the learned societies of Europe. It was soon 
discovered that the inscription was in Hieroglyphic, 
Demotic and Greek. It was found that this tablet after- 
ward known as the Rosetta stone was engraved 136 B. 
C. in order to announce an ordinance to the Egyptian 
Priests decreeing certain honors to Ptolemy Epiphanes, 
one of the famous Greek dynasties, beginning with 
Ptolemy and ending with Cleopatra. The Hieroglyphic 
inscription was deciphered by means of the accom- 
panying Greek translation and the key to the Egyptian 



8 Ancient Empires. 

Hieroglyphics was thus at hand. The learned Egypt- 
ologists, Champollion, Marietta, Dr. Young and others, 
soon opened the way to the enormous treasury of 
Egyptian history to be found on their monuments and 
in their tombs. 

Much light on Phoenician history comes from the 
fragmentary writings of Sanchoniathon, from Baby- 
lonia and Assyria through Berosus ; on Egypt, from 
Manethos lists of the thirty dynasties of Egyptian 
kings, and on the ancient nations in general from the 
works of Herodotus. The learned archeologists and 
Egyptian chronologists, Layard and Rawlinson, have 
reformed the history of Assyria, Chaldsea and Baby- 
lonia through their exhaustive researches. Dr. Schlie- 
mann, between the years 1869 and 1873, discovered 
many valuable historical relics in the site of ancient 
Troy. The Hebrew scriptures, the Greek and Latin 
writers, Josephus, and the historians of the early Chris- 
tion church furnish nearly all the information to be 
had from the more reliable periods of ancient history. 

PRIMITIVE SOCIETY. 

Two very opposite opinions prevail regarding the 
primitive conditions of mankind. One represents hu- 
man life as beginning in the Golden Age of innocence 
and bliss ; the other insists that the present civilization 
of man has been evolved from a state of wild and sav- 
age barbarism. The first theory is upheld in the sacred 
writings of all the oriental nations. Jews, Chinese, In- 
dians, Persians, Babylonians, Egyptians and the nations 



Introduction. 9 

of every country having a well defined religious faith, 
concur in the belief that man has fallen from a former 
high estate. Some begin their history with dynasties 
of gods and heroes who came to earth and dwelt among 
men. According to the other theory man was orig- 
inally in the lowest estate and has. gradually, but slowly 
and painfully, reached the present forms of judicial ad- 
ministration and mental development. 

The origin of man, as recorded in the pagan religions 
of antiquity, abounds in such gross absurdities as to 
lead only to absolute darkness. 

The pre-historic races led a pastoral and agricultural 
life. They formed vast communities and were divided 
only when irreconcilable quarrels arose among the 
heads of families. The first step known to have been 
made towards the methods of modern civilization, from 
the purely family hfe, was in the formation of villages 
by the Aryans. 

ORIGIN OF GOVERNMENT. 

The first form of government known in history is 
that of the patriarchal, which leads by easy steps to the 
monarchial. In the beginning, some primitive pa- 
triarch caused his office to be given to his eldest son, 
and thus it was made hereditary in his family. In time 
the hereditary patriarch became an hereditary king. 
These first monarchies were very weak, and their terri- 
tory was extremely limited ; but from the security thus 
attained by the centralization of power proceeded the 
idea of conquest, and the boundaries of authority there- 
by became greatly enlarged. 

In the chronicles of ancient times the reader is often 



10 Ancient Empires. 

misled by attributing power to the kings of that period 
similar to that held by the rulers of a more modern 
age. The kings of scripture were merely the chiefs of 
tribes. In the valley of Sodom alone there were five 
kings. In the narrow territory of Joshua, that martial 
ruler defeated thirty-one kings, and Adonizedec, an- 
other petty ruler, overthrew seventy kings. Doubtless 
the regal office was at first elective, but the troubles 
arising from the aspirations of ambitious men tended 
to make the office hereditary. 

The shepherds, from the necessity of their frequent 
change of pasture, were the first to develop the idea of 
conquest. This was the impulse which caused the 
Arabians and Phoenicians to leave their ancestral 
homes and become invaders and conquerors. Under 
the name of Shepherd Kings, they conquered Egypt, 
but their dominion could have only short duration, 
since their character lacked all that is essential for the 
stability of government. From the nomadic condition 
of society to the stability of civilization is a long and 
slow process. Every step in such a progress results 
from the demands of want, or the injurious experiences 
of error. 

ORIGIN OF CIVIL LAW. 

The laws of the primitive inhabitants of the world 
were essentially arbitrary and barbarous. Offences 
were magnified or ignored according to the state of 
ignorance and superstition in the judges. Doubtless 
the selfish desire for safety has done as much or more 
than conscience to secure equality before the law. 

The earliest laws of all states have been those regard- 



Introduction. ii 

ing marriage. The institution of marriage began with 
the formation of society and was the first to be regu- 
lated by unalterable codes. 

In many of the ancient nations the husband procured 
his wife by purchase or personal services. Among the 
Assyrians, when the women arrived at a marriageable 
age they were put up at- auction, but the history of the 
Jews shows the gradual development of the modern 
ideas of marriage. 

The laws of succession were the next to be embodied 
in an absolute code. The father had full power in the 
division of his property, but there were certain rights 
that were often inalienable in primogeniture. The in- 
tegrity of society makes imperative the integrity of 
law. The relationship of jurisprudence and history is 
thus shown to be very close, and each becomes a pow- 
erful interpreter of the other. 

METHODS OF AUTHKNTICATING 
CONTRACTS. 

Testaments, sales, contracts, marriages and the like 
were in the earliest times transacted in pubHc, so that 
they might be authenticated by witnesses. Many bar- 
barous nations authenticated their bargain by exchang- 
ing certain symbols. The Peruvians accomplished this 
by knotted cords of various colors. The Mexicans used 
a method of painting, and the Egyptians employed 
hieroglyphics. After the invention of writing, the 
learned priesthood of the Egyptians still continued to 
transmit and- record certain knowledge by the use of 
hieroglyphics in order to conceal it from the laity. 



12 Ancient Empires. 

METHODS FOR RECORDING HISTORICAL 
FACTS AND PUBI.ISHING I.AWS. 

History was first embalmed in poetry and song. 
Many of the ancient nations published their laws 
through the means of verse. Historical facts were 
sculptured in stone, but many of the barbarous tribes 
of ancient times had no other records of history than 
scattered tumuli and mounds of earth. All we know 
of many of the more refined nations is to be found in 
the remains of their columns, triumphal arches, coins 
and medals. 

THE DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. 

History may be divided as to its treatment into gen- 
eral and particular, as to its material into sacred and 
secular. With respect to time into ancient, mediaeval 
and modern. Ancient history ends, as is usually con- 
ceded, with the destruction of the Roman Empire in 
the West, A. D. 476. Mediaeval history extends from 
that date until the discovery of America in 1492. Mod- 
ern history embraces the period from the discovery of 
America to the present time. 

Ancient history is divided into two ages, called the 
fabulous and the historic. The fabulous age cover* 
the period previous to the foundation of Rome B. C. 
753. The historic age dates from the foundation of 
Rome, because from that time on dates and events be- 
came more clearly authentic and subject to corrobora- 
tion. 

The most stupendous revolutions known in the his- 
tory of man came to pass in the early periods of the 



Introduction. 13 

historic age. In that time occurred the entire destruc- 
tion of the Assyrian Empire and upon its ruins arose 
thi ^e great monarchies. It covers the marvelous his- 
tory of Greece with its astonishing progress of legisla- 
tion and its remarkable strides in the cultivation of the 
fine arts. 

MODERN EUROPE. 

The history of modern Europe embraces nine re- 
markable periods, the epochs of which may be enu- 
merated as follows : 

A. D. A. D. 

1. The fall of the Western Empire 476 to 800 

2. The re-establishment of that empire by 

Charlemagne . . , 800 to 962 

3. The translation of the Empire to Ger- 

many, by Otho the Great 962 to 1074 

4. The accession of Henry IV to the impe- 

rial crown, and the Crusades 1074 to 1273 

5. The elevation of Rudolph of Hapsburg 

to the imperial throne 1273 to 1453 

6. The fall of the Empire of the East. . . . 1453 to 1648 

7. The peace of WestphaHa 1648 to 1713 

8. The peace of Utrecht 1713 to 1789 

9. The French Revolution to the present 

time 1789 to 1900 

BRANCHES OF THE ARYAN FAMILY. 

1. Hindus. i 

2. Medes and Persians. 

3. Hellenes, or Greeks. 



14 Ancient Empires. 

4. Latin, or Romanic Nations. 

(i) Ancient Romans. 

(2) Italians. 

(3) French. 

(4) Spaniards and Spanish Americans, 

(5) Portuguese and Brazilians. 

(6) Flemings, or Belgians. 

(7) Roumanians. 

5. Germanic, or Teutonic Nations. 

(i) Germans. 

(2) Danes. 

(3) Swedes. 

(4) Norwegians, 

(5) Dutch, or Hollanders. 

(6) England and Anglo-American (Anglo- 
Saxon). 

(7) Scotch Lowlanders. 

(8) Norman-French. 

6. Celtic Nations. 

( 1 ) Ancient Britons, Gauls, and Spaniards. 

(2) Irish, Welsh, and Scotch Highlanders. 

(3) Bretons (West of France). 

7. Slavonic Nations. 

(i) Russians. 

(2) Poles. 

(3) Bohemians. 

(4) Servians. 

(5) Bulgarians. 

(6) Bosnians. 

(7) Croatians. 



V 



ANCIENT EMPIRES 



THE CHALDEANS. 

Chaldsea was the most ancient monarchy in Asia of 
which we have any knowledge. This kingdom occu- 
pied the fertile district through the broad belt of des- 
ert, traversing the Eastern Hemisphere from the At- 
lantic Ocean on the southwest, to the Yellow Sea on 
the east. The great western plain between the Arabian 
Desert and the mountain ranges of Kurdistan was the 
site of three of the greatest empires of the world. This 
country was known to the Jews as Aram-Naharaim, or 
"Syria of the Two Rivers." The Greeks and Romans 
called it Mesopotamia. 

The Euphrates and Tigris rivers gave it all the dis- 
tinctive features of importance and fertility. Lower 
Mesopotamia, like Egypt, was acquired land, being the 
actual gift of the streams which wash it on either side. 
Chaldsea was in the southern portion of this great 
plain. It extended from the Persian Gulf on the south, 
to the natural line of division between Upper and 
Lower Mesopotamia on the north, and extended east 
and west between the Arabian Desert and the Tigris. ' 
The climate of this region is moderate and pleasant. 
Frost is known, but ice rarely forms. The warm season 

(15) 



16 Ancient Empires. 

begins early in May and usually lasts through Novem- 
ber. In ancient times rich crops were raised on the fer- 
tile soil, and modern investigators all agree that by 
proper irrigation and cultivation this whole region 
could be made a garden spot of the world. Wheat is 
supposed to be indigenous in Chaldsea, where it may 
be mowed twice and then used as pasturage for cattle. 

As Chaldaea is destitute of stone or metals, and had 
an inexhaustible supply of bituminous clay, remains of 
the ancient Chaldsean civilization are to be found al- 
most altogether in clay tablets. 

The early history of Chaldsea abounds in the fabu- 
lous and obscure. The most clearly defined traditions 
point to Nimrod, the descendant of Ham, as being the 
father of the Chaldsean nation. Nimrod is said to have 
founded Babylon in the year B. C. 2286. He was a 
monarch of great personal power and ambition, who 
was called in the Hebrew Scriptures, "A mighty hunter 
before the Lord." We know nothing further of his 
reign than that he built the cities of Erech or Hurak, 
Accad and Calneh in the land of Shinar. From the 
impression which he made upon his country it is evi- 
dent that he was one of the greatest men of the ancient 
world. He was defied by his nation, and until the latest 
times was one of the principal objects of worship under 
the title of Bel-Nimrod. Rawlinson says that the name 
given by the Arabic astronomers to the constellation of 
Orion, El Jabbar, the giant, was in memory of Nimrod. 

The only ancient heroes still remembered by the As- 
syrians are Nimrod, Solomon and Alexander the Great. 
The period immediatelyfollowing the reign of Nimrod 



The ChaldaBans. 17 

has been lost, but there was evidently an emigration of 
the Semitic and Haniitic tribes to the northward. The 
Assyrians or Semites, went into Upper Mesopotamia, 
while the Phoenicians or the Hamitic people passed 
into Canaan and settled along the shores of the Med- 
iterranean. The Hebrews originated from the tribe 
which passed into northern Mesopotamia. 

The earliest Chaldaean monarch of whom any traces 
have been found was Urkham. His reign began about 

B. C. 2326. He built numerous gigantic temples, mass- 
ive in size, but rude in construction. The bricks are 
rough and put together in the most awkward manner. 
Rawlinson says : "In his architecture, though there is 
much that is rude and simple, there is also a good deal 
which indicates knowledge and experience." The capi- 
tal of his kingdom was at Ur, Babylon having not 
yet risen to a prominent position. Urkham was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Egli. He styled himself king of Ur. 
The signet cylinder of this king has been found, and is 
now in the British Museum. 

The blank that follows the reign of Egli in Chaldaean 
history is broken by the conquering of the country B. 

C. 2286 by an Elamitic Dynasty from Susa. A third 
dynasty of eleven kings began about B. C. 2052. This 
marks the period betwen the conquest of the Elamitic 
kings and the independence of the Chaldseans. Be- 
twen the years ~B. C. 1546 and B. C. 1300 an Arab chief, 
Khammurabi, made himself master of the country. He 
ruled wisely and was the first to introduce a proper sys- 
tem of irrigation. One of his inscriptions says that 
the canals he constructed changed desert plains into 



18 Ancient Empires. 

well-watered fields. Many large buildings were also 
constructed by him. During the existence of this dy- 
nasty, Babylon was the seat of the court, and intimate 
relations were maintained with Assyria. About the 
year B. C. 1300 Tiglathi-Nin, king of Assyria, invaded 
and conquered Chaldsea, which became a part of the 
Assyrian monarchy, and continued so for centuries. 

The temples of the chief dties were pyramidal in 
shape, and built in successive steps to considerable 
height. Legends were stamped on the baked bricks, 
thus showing that a form of writing was then in use. 
The art of working on metals was known and textile 
fabrics were manufactured from delicate tissues. They 
had a considerable commerce on the Persian Gulf, and 
their civilization, science, letters and art extended in 
every direction. 

Chaldsea thus stands forth without a rival, as the 
parent of Asiatic civilization. Their religion was a 
polytheism of the grossest kind, although their prin- 
cipal gods numbered but sixteen, their inferior deities 
were legion. Their system, shows a remarkable resem- 
blance to classic mythology, and there is scarcely a 
doubt that the mythological notions and ideas of the 
Greeks and Romans had their origin among the primi- 
tive tribes of the Tigris and Euphrates. 



THE PHCENICIANS. 

A narrow strip of land extending along the Mediter- 
ranean from the ladder of Tyre on the South, to the 
• Island of Aradus, called Arvad in the Bible, consti- 
tutes the territory occupied by the ancient Phoenicians. 
The Lebanon range on the East was covered with great 
cedars and afforded an inexhaustible supply of timber 
for ship building. 

The Phoenicians originated in the Hamitic race and 
were descended from Canaan. They came to the shores 
of the Mediterranean about the time of Nimrod, built 
many cities and were finally united into a confederacy. 
Each city was free, but in time of war one was ac- 
knowledged as the leader. Sidon was the oldest, and 
was the first to reach the greatest height of wealth and 
power. It was early a commercial city and entered 
upon great enterprises by land and sea with neighbor- 
ing nations. In time it engaged in a system of found- 
ing colonies which subsequently made the influence of 
the Phoenicians upon the destinies of the world of in- 
estimable value. Until the year B. C. 1050 Sidon re- 
mained chief of the cities, but at that time it was cap- 
tured and destroyed by the Philistines, who over- 
ran the country from the Southern part of Palestine. 

Tyre, the first of the Phoenician colonies, then be- 
came the principal city. The original city of Tyre stood 
on the main land, but this being captured and destroyed 
the inhabitants rebuilt the city on an island about one 

(19) 



20 Ancient Empires. 

mile from the shore. In a short time it surpassed all 
other cities in wealth, splendor and commercial great- 
ness. 

The Phoenicians were the earliest navigators, and for 
many centuries the commerce of the world was ex- 
clusively in their hands. Their first commercial ven- 
tures were doubtless made with Egypt, which was 
easily reached by land. Many bronze implements of 
undoubted Phcenician origin have been found in Egyp- 
tian tombs that were contemporary with the Pyramids. 
Tin being one of the component parts of bronze, and 
being found no nearer to Egypt than in the Caucasus, 
India or Spain, it must have been brought into Egypt 
from one of these regions, with which the Phcenicians 
probably had exclusive trade. The search for this 
metal, which was at that time in great demand, caused 
the Phoenicians to seek it in less difficult fields than 
those of the Caucasus and of India. An open sea af- 
forded a safe way to the Spanish coast where tin was 
found in abundance. When the Phoenicians had ac- 
quired great wealth and power, they still carried on and 
sought to increase the commerce which they had opened 
up in the East. At a very late period the Phoenicians 
still held the exclusive privilege of furnishing Italy and 
Greece with tin. At last the mines of Spain were ex- 
hausted, and then the Phoenician navigators passed the 
Pillars of Hercules and made frequent visits to the 
coast of Cornwall. Following their profitable sea trade 
they established colonies at advanced points and trading 
stations in distant countries, which ultimately devel- 
oped into important cities. The vast extent of the Phoe- 



The Phoenicians. 21 

nician trade is thus indicated by the position of these 
colonies. Some of the cities arising in these colonies 
soon rose to such prominence as to surpass the mother 
country in the extent of their trade. Voyages were 
made to the West coast of Africa for apes, and to the 
Scilly Isles and Cornwall for tin. Other vessels went 
to India and Ceylon, returning with diamonds and 
pearls. Gold was obtained from Ophir on the South- 
east coast of Arabia. They entered the Black Sea and 
established relations with Thrace, Scythia and Colchis. 
The land traffic was begun between these colonial sta- 
tions, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf, which very 
likely extended to all the neighboring nations. The 
great wealth obtained from their commerce was swelled 
by their domestic manufactories. They originated the 
famous dye known as Tyrian purple, which they ob- 
tained in minute drops from two shell fish, Buccinum 
and Murex. This dye, being very costly, was used only 
to obtain the most beautiful effects in silk fabrics and 
woolen goods. Homer speaks of his heroes being ar- 
rayed in Sidonian robes dyed in this gorgeous purple of 
deep-red violet. 

The art of glass blowing was also an invention of 
the Phoenicians, and they attained a high degree of 
skill in its exercise. Specimens of their glassware still 
exist attesting their skill and workmanship. They 
were well advanced in the manufacture of pottery, and 
the Greeks learned from them the art of making 
painted vases. Many of them were skillful jewelers, 
and they were noted for their beautiful carvings in 
ivory. They produced excellent wines. Canaan was 



32 Ancient Empires. 

noted for its profusion of fruits, and the production of 
silk became a source of increasing wealth. 

At this time the writing of the Eastern nations was 
ideographic, but the Phoenicians used an alphabet of 
twenty-two letters, each of which represented an in- 
variable articulation. There is considerable reason to 
believe that the Phoenician alphabet was invented dur- 
ing the reign of Avaris, one of the Shepherd Kings of 
Egypt, several centuries before the exodus of the 
Israelites. As this is the first true alphabet known, to 
the Phoenicians belongs the honor of its use, whether 
they were the inventors or not. Wherever their com- 
mercial enterprises took them they introduced the use 
of this alphabet, and so spread the knowledge of writ- 
ing over the world. Although the Phoenicians were 
descendants of Ham, they spoke a Semitic language, 
the idioms of which differed but little from that of the 
Hebrews ; in fact, the similarity in grammatical forms 
and vocabulary is so marked that they cannot properly 
be considered as two distinct languages. 

Among their accomplishments, so remarkable for 
that early period, may also be included a well ad- 
vanced literature. They had treatises on religion, agri- 
culture and the useful arts ; many of the cities pos- 
sessed regular records in writing, and the principles of 
their religion, social and political organizations were 
embodied in a written law. The people of Sidon were 
noted for their skill in mathematics, philosophy and 
architecture. Immense stones were used in the con- 
struction of their buildings, as may still be seen in 
the temple platforms at Jerusalem, and in the sea walls 



The Phoenicians. 23 

of Tyre, which were built by Phoenician architects and 
masons. 

Although they aimed at the massive and enduring 
in their buildings, large statues were very rare. Some 
of their stone sculpture exhibit great artistic skill, but 
their statuettes of baked clay and bronze are rough and 
coarse in design and execution. They recognized one 
universal divine being, usually termed Baal, the lord. 
He was the great agent of creative power, and repre- 
sented the sun. Fire was venerated, and the solar and 
sideral deities were fire gods. 

The Phoenician deities were worshiped with the 
most licentious and horrible rites. As the people were 
themselves servile, gloomy and cruel, their customs and 
manners were likewise selfish and corrupt. The com- 
mercial spirit possessed them to the exclusion of every 
finer feeling, and displaced every generous emotion and 
elevating sentiment. 

The location of Phoenicia, as well as its enormous 
wealth, made it the battleground of the ages. In an 
early day it was subjugated by Egypt, and in turn was 
devastated and conquered by all the warlike powers of 
the ancient world. 

In the eleventh century before Christ, Tyre became 
the leading city of Syria. Its first king was Abibaal, 
who was contemporary with David. His son, Hiram, 
succeeded him B. C. 1025, and reigned during the re- 
mainder of the century. Hiram maintained intimate 
relations with both David and Solomon of Israel, and 
supplied most of the costly materials for the construc- 
tion of the Jewish temple. The supremacy of Tyre 



24 Ancient Empires. 

caused the king of Tyre to be known as the king of the 
Sidonians, although there was a local monarch, known 
as king of Sidon. The king of Tyre had charge of all 
the business with other nations relating to Phoenicia. 
Hiram died in B. C. 991, and the following fifty years 
were full of constant domestic intrigue and insurrec- 
tions until Eth-Baal, known as Ithobalus, the High 
Priest of Astarte, slew Phales, the last pretender, and 
made himself king of the Sidonians from the throne 
of Tyre. It was his daughter, Jezebel, who married 
Ahab, king of Israel. She exerted such influence over 
the mind of her husband that Israel practically came 
under the control of Phoenicia. Eth-Baal died about 
B. C. 909, and was succeeded by his son, Matgen. This 
king died B, C. 871, leaving a son called Pygmalion, 
and a daughter known to history as Dido. It was 
Matgen's wish that his children should reign together, 
but the people claimed Pygmalion king to the exclusion 
of his sister. At this Dido married the High Priest of 
Melcarth, who was next in rank to the king, and at the 
head of the aristocratic and opposing party. Dido's 
husband, Zicharbaal, spoken of by Virgil as Ichseus, 
was soon after assassinated by order of Pygmalion. 
Dido then organized a conspiracy, composed of Phoe- 
nician nobles, who were bent On dethroning Pygmalion, 
and avenging the death of Dido's husband. However, 
the conspirators were defeated, and in their extremity 
several thousand of them seized the ships lying in the 
harbor of Tyre and sailed away under the leadership 
of Dido, this name being given to her at that time, and 
signifying the fugitive. Reaching the northeastern 



The Phoenicians. 35 

coast of Africa, they became the founders of Carthage, 
Although Pygmalion's reign ended B. C. 824 we have 
no information of any other Phcenician monarch for 
more than one hundred years. During this time they 
were subject to Assyria, but the prosperity and mari- 
time power of the country seems in no wise to have 
been injured. There was an unsuccessful revolt in B. C. 
743, under Hiram of Tyre from the rule of Tiglath- 
Pileser II. 

In B. C. ^2^ Elulseus endeavored to wrest Phoenicia 
from Shalmaneser IV. The Assyrian king at once oc- 
cupied old Tyre and laid siege to the city on the island. 
As the Assyrians had no fleet and could not take it 
from the land, their siege was merely a blockade. They 
destroyed the aqueduct from the main land which sup- 
plied the city with water, and the people subsisted on 
such rain water as they were able to catch from the 
clouds during the five years of their resistance. Mean- 
while Shalmaneser was dethroned, but the siege was 
continued by Sargon, his successor. 

Sargon collected a fleet of sixty ships from the other 
Phoenician cities which he had captured, and endeav- 
ored to attack the island city from the sea, but the 
Tyrians met him with their fleet of twelve ships and 
totally destroyed his entire force. Unable to overcome 
Tyre, Sargon abandoned the siege, but as the Assyrians 
had subjugated all the remaining territory the power 
of Tyre was almost destroyed. 

In B. C. 704, soon after Sennacherib had ascended 
the throne, Elulseus reasserted the supremacy of Tyre 
and proclaimed the independence of Phoenicia. Four 



26 Ancient Empires. 

years later Sennacherib invaded the country with a 
powerful army, and all the cities but Tyre at once sub- 
mitted. After a determined resistance, in which all the 
resources of the Island of Tyre were exhausted, the city 
was compelled to submit to Sennacherib, and Elulseus 
found safety in flight. After the assassination of Sen- 
nacherib, Sidon rebelled and made an attempt to secure 
the supremacy formerly held by Tyre. Essar-haddon, 
B. C. 68 1, moved against the rebellious Sidon, de- 
stroyed it and enslaved the people. Phoenicia threw off 
the Assyrian yoke at the death of Essar-haddon, and 
made an alliance with Egypt. But in B. C. 666 the 
Assyrian supremacy was again restored. In B. C. 630 
a Scythian invasion ravaged the whole country of Phoe- 
nicia, but was unable to take any of the fortified cities. 
This unhappy territory for many years following was 
alternately the pray of Egypt and Assyria. In the 
reign of Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 598, Tyre resisted an 
Assyrian siege of thirteen years, but was at last carried 
by assault and reduced to ruins. Most of the popula- 
tion fled to Carthage, taking with them their wealth 
and their industry. 

In later years the country fell a pray to the conquest 
of Alexander the Great, which terminated the national 
existence of Phoenicia. Rome held that territory 
through many generations until it was at last included 
in the Empire of the Mohammedans. 



THE CARTHAGENIANS. 

Dido with her aristocratic friends, flying from the 
wrath of her brother, Pygmalion, at Tyre, arrived at 
the head of a peninsula which projected eastward into 
the Gulf of Tunis, and founded the city of Carthage, 
B. C. 869. For two centuries the history of this city is 
a mere woof of fables, but its power was gradually ex- 
tending, and in the sixth century before Christ it be- 
comes known to history as a flourishing metropolis 
having acknowledged supremacy over the northern 
coast of Africa from the Pillars of Hercules to the ter- 
ritory of Cyrene, and from the sea to Lake Triton on 
the south. 

It is clear that from the beginning Carthage aimed 
at nothing less than the establishment of a great em- 
pire on the land and over the sea. It won the allegiance 
of the nomadic tribes on the main land, and caused 
them to engage in agricultural pursuits. Colonies were 
established among them and intermarriages were en- 
couraged. In the course of time a strong mixed race 
arose, which yielded ready submission to Carthage, 
adopting its language and customs. As early as the 
founding of Carthage, a number of Phoenician colonies 
were in existence along the coast, which afterward be- 
came Carthagenian territory. Carthage never entirely 
subjugated them, but held a position toward them 
very similar to that of Tyre over the old Phoenician 
cities. This was an element of weakness which in her 

(27) 



28 Ancient Empires. 

destructive wars with Rome weighed terribly against 
her. At a very early day Carthage established a strong 
influence over Sicily. Sardinia near the close of the 
sixth century B. C. was conquered, and about the same 
time Carthagenian colonies were established in the 
islands lying in the western part of the Mediterranean 
Sea. A little later other colonies were planted in Cor- 
sica and Spain. As most of the Carthagenians were 
actively engaged in commercial enterprises, the con- 
quests of this city were largely effected by the employ- 
ment of foreign troops. Carthage early maintained a 
powerful navy, which was formed at first to protect its 
commerce from the Mediterranean pirates. The ves- 
sels were rowed by slaves, but the officers in charge 
were native Carthagenians. However ambitious the 
Carthagenians were for conquests, they very prudently 
never attempted to acquire more territory than their 
commerce required. 

Carthage very early in its career adopted the policy 
of founding colonies on islands, recognizing the fact that 
such a colony is easier protected than one on the main 
land. The western part of the Mediterranean was an 
open field to them, and in harmony with their ambitions 
and resources. According to the principles of its 
founders, Carthage was always an aristocratic Repub- 
lic, the chief distinction between the classes being that 
of wealth. Every Carthagenian was eligible to office, 
but as there was no salary attached to official positions 
no poor man could afford to be an officeholder. In 
consequence all political power was lodged in the hands 
of the rich, and public opinion was kept steadily op- 
posed to the elevation of a poor man to office. 



The Carthagenians. 29 

The Carthagenians held to the same religion as the 
Phcenicians, the worst features of that faith being 
adopted, and the most barbarous rites practiced. One 
of the first measures exacted by the conquering Romans 
was in the suppression of human sacrifices to Baal. 

Sicily was early an object greatly desired by the 
Carthagenians. Settlements were made in the western 
corner of the island, and a steady policy was pursued 
that looked toward its final conquest. No force was 
used, however, against the Greek inhabitants until the 
fifth century B. C. When Xerxes invaded Greece, 
Carthage believed that the time had come to conquer 
the Greek cities of Sicily. Hamilcar, son of Mago, 
attempted the conquest, but was heroically defeated by 
Gelo at Himera, B. C. 480. The Carthagenian army 
was then sent against the Libyan tribes, and they were 
reduced to subjection, thus ending the tribute which 
Carthage had until that time paid as rental for the 
ground on wTiich the city stood. 

Seventy years after the first invasion of the Island of 
Sicily the Carthagenians, at the invitation of Egesta, 
again invaded that island to assist the city Egesta in her 
contest with Sehnus. Both the fleet and the army were 
under command of Hannibal, grandson of Hamilcar. 
The Greeks were defeated, Selinus and Himera were 
destroyed, and the Carthagenians returned home in 
triumph. Encouraged by their successes, the Cartha- 
genians put forth all their power to conquer Sicily. The 
wars that followed occupied the most of the four cen- 
turies before the Christian Era. The end of the war 
came in B. C. 340, when Carthage was compelled to 
make peace. 



30 Ancient Empires. 

Agathocles, king of Syracuse, in B. C. 311, deter- 
mined to drive the Carthagenians out of Sicily. He 
was defeated the next year by Hamilcar, and a deso- 
lating war with various successes continued for six 
years, when peace was declared. At this time Carthage 
barely held its original possessions in Sicily, which were 
about one-third of the island. 

In these wars the Carthagenians learned their weak- 
nesses, and received an excellent training for the com- 
ing struggle of life or death with its great Latin rival. 
Meantime the new power was rapidly rising in Italy, 
that was destined to destroy Carthage and conquer the 
world. Henceforth the history of that unfortunate 
city practically belongs to the history of Rome. 



THE ETHIOPIANS. 

Nubia and Abyssinia are now the political divisions 
covering the territory that was occupied by the An- 
cient Ethiopians. The origin of these people is veiled 
in the impenetrable obscurity common to ancient na- 
tions. Splendid monuments, colossal statues, obelisks, 
sphinxs and rock-cut temples show that this ancient 
Hamitic family was as advanced in art and civilization 
as its Egyptian neighbors. 

The region occupied by the Ethiopians also contained 
nomadic Arab tribes, even at that date, as much out of 
touch with the neighboring civilization as are the wan- 
dering Arab tribes of the present time. 

The civilized Ethiopians possessed a civil govern- 
ment, dwelt in cities and executed with justice their 
laws. They used hieroglyphics, and their progress and 
wealth was such as to give them considerable fame over 
other portions of the civilized world. That part of the 
Nile valley wherein they lived was as fertile and rich as 
the territory occupied by the Egyptians. Meroe, an 
island almost surrounded by rivers, was the breeding 
ground for camels, and a considerable commerce in 
ivory, ebony and spices was carried on both between 
the negroes of Central Africa and the Egyptians. A 
flourishing Ethiopian kingdom had its seat at Meroe 
about 1,000 years A. D., and all upper Egypt was in- 
cluded in its dominion. 

As the Ethiopians were, through most of their 

(31) 



33 Ancient Empires. 

existence, a peaceful people, the little we know of their 
history comes from their invaders. They were several 
times conquered by Egyptian kings, but the Egyptian 
rule over them was only for comparatively short 
periods. About the nth century B. C, according to 
the Greek historians, Ethiopia was invaded by Semi- 
ramis, the Assyrian queen, who was one of the fabulous 
heroines of ancient times. 

One of the first facts known to a certainty about the 
Ethiopians is that they aided Shishak, king of Egypt, 
when he sought to subjugate Rehoboam, king of Judah, 
in 957 B. C. It is said that sixteen years later Zerah, 
king of Ethiopia, again invaded Judah with a great 
army, but was totally defeated. 

We learn from the Jewish scriptures that the Ethio- 
pians at one time controlled the navigation of the Red 
Sea, and were masters of a large part of Arabia. To 
have carried on such an extensive and distant cam- 
paign is proof that the Ethiopian kingdom was strong 
in resources and military power. It was some time dur- 
ing this period that King Sobaco conquered Egypt. 
One of his successors, called So in scripture, was so 
powerful that Hoshea, king of Israel, was encouraged 
to revolt against the Assyrians. As the Ethiopian king 
did not come to his assistance, Hoshea and his people 
were carried into Assyrian captivity. Another Ethio- 
pian king of Egypt, known as Tirhakah in scripture, 
led an army against Sennacherib, king of Assyria, in 
an attempt to raise the siege of Jerusalem. 

The Ethiopians came into notice again during the 
reign of Psammetichus in Egypt, sometime during the 



The Ethiopians. 33 

7th century, B. C, because of the emigration of 240,000 
Egyptian soldiers into Ethiopia. This great body of 
the warrior-castev left their country because they be- 
came offended at the invitation their king had extended 
to certain Greek merchants to settle in Egypt. This 
immigration added greatly to the prosperity and 
strength of the state. They adopted the Ethiopian cus- 
toms and were of great assistance in resisting the for- 
midable invasion of the Persians. 

After conquering Egypt, Cambyses, in 525 B. C, in- 
vaded Ethiopia, without having made adequate pro- 
vision for the unknown dangers of the expedition. In 
consequence the Persian army was destroyed by famine 
in the desert. 

The religion of the Ethiopians was very similar to 
that of their neighbors, the Egyptians. Several temples 
were erected to the worship of Ammon. The priest- 
hood comprised the sacred caste, and in them was 
vested all political power. The king was chosen from 
among themselves, and in the name of the Gods his life 
was always at their disposal. The superstitious African 
tribes stood in great awe of the Ethiopian priests, and 
when a priest was at the head of a caravan it was never 
molested by the savage Nigritians. 

Ergamenes became king early in the 3rd century 
B. C. He had lived for a time in Greece and was well 
instructed in the Greek philosophy. He had also visited 
Jerusalem, and while there was so impressed with the 
Jewish faith that he adopted it as his own. Despising 
the professions of the priesthood, he stormed their 
fortresses, massacred most of them, and established 
the Jewish religion. 



34 Ancient Empires. 

That many of the sovereigfns of Ethiopia were 
queens, we learn from the chronicles of Augustus 
Csesar, who was opposed about twenty years B. C, by 
a horde of undisciplined Ethiopians led by a woman. 
The superior arms of the Romans brought an easy 
triumph, but an honorable peace was given by the con- 
queror to the queen, whose name was Candace. 

Another Queen Candace followed Ergamenes, and 
it is known that during her reign her confidential ad- 
visor went to worship at Jerusalem. While there he 
came under the instruction of St. Philip, and thus be- 
came a convert to Christianity. On his return to Ethi- 
opia, A. D. 53, he made Christianity the state religion. 
Since that time the Christian religion, corrupted by 
many native principles and rites, has prevailed among 
the descendants of the Ethiopians, now known as the 
Abyssinians and Nubians. 

Their sculpture and architecture, in its rough and 
colossal forms, very much resembles that of the An- 
cient Egyptians. In Nubia, near Derr, is the remark- 
able rock-temple of Ipsambul. This massive temple is 
cut from a mountain of solid rock. The inside is 
adorned with immense statues and painted sculptures 
which represent triumphal processions, religious 
pageants, battles and castles. Four colossi are on the 
outside, larger than any in Egypt except the Sphinx. 
As a curious incident, it may be noted that' this rock- 
temple resembles the famous excavated structures of 
the Hindus in the Island of Elephanta, near Bombay. 

The social estate of the ancient Ethiopians and the 
modern Abyssinians contain little to be admired. The 



The Ethiopians. 35 

Christianity of the modern Abyssinian has had a con- 
stant struggle against Mohammedanism in regard to 
marriage, but the polygamist practice of the Arabs pre- 
vails. 

Through the study of their language, modern schol- 
ars' have learned much of the ethnic relationship of the 
Ethiopians. The Abyssinian language, being so 
nearly one with the Hymyarite Arabs, indicates the 
same ultimate origin as the Hebrews, and the Ethiopic 
tongue, as learned from the Amharic inscriptions, 
shows it to be a member of the southern group of 
Semitic languages. 

In the early ages the Abyssinians were Aryans. In 
the 6th century the Abyssinian church became Mono- 
physite, and in this form spread over Nubia. 

In the i6th century the Portuguese, through their 
missionaries, endeavored to convert the Abyssinians 
to \he orthodox standard. Jesuit missionaries were 
established, and in the year 1624, the Abyssinian 
church went over entirely to the Roman Catholic faith. 
The authority of the Pope was acknowledged, however, 
only for a short time, when ecclesiastical independence 
was again proclaimed. 



THE EGYPTIANS. 

Misraim, one of the sons of Ham, is supposed to 
have been the progenitor of the Egyptians. His gov- 
ernment was under the control of an aristocratic Priest- 
hood whose members were the patrons of arts and 
sciences. There seems to have been three distinct 
classes. The Priests, the soldiers and the artisans. The 
Priests held a powerful influence over the people 
through the means of religion, and the military to have 
upheld the Priesthood by a wholly arbitrary power. 
For the first two centuries there does not survive the 
name of a single ruler. The ancient sacerdotal despot- 
ism is supposed to have been overthrown by Menes, a 
military chieftain. In its place he established the first 
civil monarchy about twenty-four hundred years be- 
fore Christ. Menes was first in the long line of 
Pharaohs. Herodotus and Josephus both attribute the 
founding of Memphis to Menes. This is probably the 
most ancient Egyptian city. Others also attribute to 
his enterprise the building of Thebes. Most of the 
reign of Menes seems to have been occupied in foreign 
wars with nations unknown to history. Numerous tra- 
ditions record that he cultivated the arts of peace. 
Beyond question he protected religion and erected many 
temples. The frontiers of his kingdom he defended 
with great walls. He dug numerous canals, and con- 
structed dikes to prevent inundations and for regulating 
the overflows of the Nile upon the cultivated lands. 

(36) 



The Egyptians. 37 

His name is the most prominent in all ancient records, 
many of the subsequent monarchs being entirely ig- 
nored. That he was held in great veneration by his im- 
mediate posterity is attested by the numerous monu- 
ments which still endure. 

The period betwen the reign of Menes and the en- 
trance of Abraham into Egypt, about the twenty-first 
century before Christ, is almost blank in the records of 
that country. The interpretation of hieroglyphic in- 
scriptions has corroborated many of the vague tradi- 
tions and established the fact that the greatest Egyptian 
Pyramids were erected three or four hundred years be- 
fore the time of Abraham, and not less than eight hun- 
dred years before Moses. Abraham on his visit to 
Egypt was received with the hospitality that betokens 
a highly advanced nation. Nearly a century before 
Abraham's visit, the Hycsos or Shepherd Kings had 
conquered Lower Egypt. These roving people came 
from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, and were 
probably of that family of people known in the sacred 
scriptures as the Philistines, and still later in ancient 
history as Phoenicians. 

The Hycsos kings continued in their rule over Lower 
Egypt for a period of two hundred and sixty years, 
when they were expelled and driven back to Asia. Dur- 
ing this period Thebes was the capital of Upper Egypt, 
and it appears to have remained wholly under the gov- 
ernment of native Egyptians. 

It was a few years after the expulsion of the Shep- 
herd Kings when Joseph became governor under one of 
the Pharaohs, and the family of Jacob was given the 
land of Goshen. 



38 Ancient Empires. 

SESOSTRIS. 

While the IsraeHtes were wandering in the wilder- 
ness, Sesostris was the King of Egypt. Ancient histo- 
rians represent him as being not only the most powerful 
ruler Egypt ever produced, but also one of the most 
extensive conquerors. Amenophis, the father of Sesos- 
tris, having a presentiment of the coming glory of his 
son, omitted nothing that might contribute to his popu- 
larity and power. Among the things done to insure a 
faithful following of his son, Amenophis ordered all the 
male children born on the same day with Sesostris to be 
taken to Court. Under the influence of the wisest 
teachers to be procured, Amenophis caused these chil- 
dren to be brought up with the young prince, receiving 
the same attention and education. It is said that seven- 
teen hundred v/ere thus trained as a body-guard for 
Sesostris. They were inured from infancy to hard and 
laborious life that they might one day be prepared for 
the fatigues of war. No meal was allowed to be taken 
until they had given certain time to vigorous exercise. 
Hunting and horseback riding were their chief diver- 
sions ; and, as soon as they were old enough, they ac- 
companied military expeditions against the neighboring 
tribes. When Amenophis died, Sesostris was well pre- 
pared for the great career that followed. The plans of 
Sesostris embodied nothing less than* the conquest of 
the whole world. His first care, however, was to pro- 
vide for the interior tranquillity of his country, and espe- 
cially to win the love and devotion of his people by 
unexempled aflfability and equity. 

Egypt was divided by him into thirty-six provinces ; 



The Egyptians. 39 

the governor of each being intrusted to a wisely selected 
person whose uprightness and fidelity were beyond 
doubt. During the time when he was thus securing the 
faithful integrity of his people, he made careful and 
adequate preparation for the execution of his vast de- 
signs. Troops were assembled and drilled in all the 
military evolutions then known, and made a part of the 
great machine through which he hoped to become mas- 
ter of the world. His army consisted of six hundred 
thousand infantry and twenty-four thousand cavalry, 
with twenty-seven thousand war chariots. This army 
was first thrown into Ethiopia, a country south of 
Egypt, which he made tributary, and then forced the 
inhabitants to pay him large revenues in ivory and gold. 
He next attacked the maritime cities along the Ara- 
bian Gulf and the shores of the Indian Ocean with a 
fleet of three or four hundred vessels. His conquests 
by land still continued, and in a short time he had over- 
run Asia and advanced into Eastern Judah beyond the 
points reached by Hercules or Alexander. Turning 
north he conquered Armenia, Cappadocia and subdued 
the Scythians in the ancient kingdom of Colchos. Near 
the Euxine Sea he founded a colony which caused the 
Egyptian manners to prevail in that country for many 
years. Herodotus states that in his travels through 
Asia Minor he found many monuments erected by 
Sesostris in commemoration of victories. In several 
Asiatic countries there were found columns containing 
the following inscription : "Sesostris, king of kings, 
and lord of lords, subdued this country by the power 
of his arms." Several pillars of this kind were found in 



40 Ancient Empires. 

Thrace, and others show that Sesostris penetrated as 
far as the Tamais, and that his empire extended from 
the Ganges to the Danube. 

Unlike other conquerors he made no effort to con- 
tinue his power in the countries he subdued, but was 
contented, after having taken possession and exacted 
tribute, to allow the subjugated territory to resume its 
former government. For the space of nine years he 
was occupied in overrunning the world, and then, as if 
satisfied with his invasions, returned to Egypt. There 
is no evidence to show that any of the subjugated ter- 
ritories were retained under his control. 

When Sesostris returned to his kingdom he was 
crowned with glory and loaded with the spoils of a sav- 
age and depopulating war, in which he had despoiled 
whole provinces and reduced peaceful nations to the ut- 
most misery and distress. The rest of his life was spent 
in the quiet and single government of his own people. 
When Egypt passed under the control of the Roman 
emperors, there still remained many monuments testi- 
fying to the splendor and opulence of his kingdom. It 
is said that in his old age he became blind, and, wearied 
with the infirmities of years, he committed suicide, after 
a brilliant reign of thirty-three years. 

EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION. 

Much of the cultivation and attainments of the an- 
cient nations is traceable directly to the influence of the 
Egyptians. The Greeks were instructed by the Egyp- 
tians, and the Romans by the Greeks. The influence 
exerted upon modern civilization by the cultivation and 



The Egyptians. 4i 

preservation of Egyptian art and thought through ihe 
Greeks and Romans cannot be estimated, but was un- 
questionably very powerful. Aside from the chronicles 
of Manetho and other sources of Egyptian history, the 
nature of Egyptian remains affords adequate presump- 
tion that the civilization of that country dates from 
great antiquity. 

The functions of the king were partly civil and partly 
religious. He had the chief regulation of all that per- 
tained to the worship of the gods. Priests were his 
deputies, and filled the offices of state. They were both 
legislators and civil judges; they imposed taxes and 
regulated weights and measures. 

The penal laws of Egypt were uncommonly severe. 
The sacred funeral rights were not conferred until a 
thorough scrutiny into the life of j;he deceased admitted 
a judicial decree proving his character. One extraor- 
dinary regulation regarding the borrowing of money 
may be mentioned. The borrower was accustomed to 
pledge the body of his father as security, and all funeral 
rights to the parent were denied if the son failed to re- 
pay his creditor. 

The increase of population was everywhere encour- 
aged by law, and every man was bound not only to 
maintain and educate his children, but also those of his 
slaves. 

The Egyptians had a singular attachment to ancient 
usages. They disliked innovations, and strangers were 
always objects of jealousy and abhorrence. 

The knowledge of the useful arts and the cultivation 
of the sciences preceded, among the Egyptians, many 



42 Ancient Empires. 

of the most ancient nations. Architecture was early 
brought to the greatest perfection, especially in their 
public buildings, pyramids and obelisks. Owing to the 
mildness of climate, these structures suffered but little 
injury from time. 

Thebes, probably the oldest of the great Egyptian 
cities, was one of the most magnificent ever built. The 
Pyramids, far south of Thebes, were erected nearly 
three thousand years before Christ, and were doubtless 
the sepulchral monuments of the earliest sovereigns. 
Such great care was taken of the dead, because the 
Egyptians believed that the soul never entirely aban- 
doned the body. A process of embalming was there- 
fore brought to the utmost perfection, and the bodies 
were entombed in caves and catacombs, where they 
were guarded by stupendous structures, too massive to 
be the object of art. Though art in Egypt is venerable 
from its great antiquity, yet it is extremely deficient in 
beauty and elegance, as endurance seemed to be the 
chief object to be attained. 

In painting and sculpture the Egyptians were but 
slightly proficient, and they were entirely ignorant of 
the construction of the arch. In mathematics they 
possessed considerable knowledge. They calculated 
eclipses, divided the zodiac into twelve seasons, and 
had some idea of the motion of the earth. The theology 
and sacred documents of the Priests were in many re- 
spects rational and sublime, but the worship of the 
people was debased into the most absurd superstitions 
and their morals were very depraved. The national 
character was extremely low, and was much despised 



The Egyptians. 43 

among the contemporary nations. The cause of this 
may be attributed to their isolation, their hatred for the 
arts and improvements of foreign people, and their an- 
tipathy to all innovations. 

PROCESS OF EMBALMING. 

Diodorus gives us the first circumstantial account of 
the Egyptian process of embalming. He says that 
many persons were employed. One drew the brain 
through the nostrils, by an instrument prepared for 
that purpose; another emptied the bowels and intes- 
tines through the side by the use of some sharp instru- 
ment, while others filled these cavities with desiccating 
and preservative perfumes and odoriferous drugs. This 
process appearing in many respects both cruel and in- 
human, they were compelled to run away as soon as the 
operation was over in order to avoid the resentment of 
the relatives and mourners. Those who were employed 
in filling the body with murrh, cinnamon and the dif- 
ferent spices were very honorably treated. 

There were many processes varying in completeness 
and cost, the perfection as to details depending upon the 
rank and wealth of the deceased. In the course of a 
few days after the first part of the preparation was 
done, the corpse was swathed in long fillets, and glued 
together with thin glue, which was then crusted over 
with perfumes as exquisite as could be afforded. 
Through this means the eyelids, brows and lineaments 
of the face were preserved in a natural state. After the 
completion of the process the body was delivered to the 
relatives, who placed it in an open chest, which was 



44 Ancient Empires. 

made to fit very closely the body. This casket was then 
set upright against the wall, either in the home of the 
relatives or in a specially prepared sepulchre. 

The sacred asylum of the tomb could not be pro- 
faned by the body of one that had not lived an upright' 
life. Therefore when the body was ready for the 
sepulchre, a trial was held before judges appointed for 
that purpose, in which the entire life of the deceased 
was canvassed. If it was found that the body was un- 
worthy of being buried among the justified, it was re- 
turned to the relatives to be disposed of otherwise. If 
the judgment was favorable it was at once placed in 
the sacred tombs. 

In the ceremonies of interment a panegyric on the 
life of the deceased was pronounced, but in it there was 
no mention of the birth of the deceased, because every 
Egyptian was believed to be born equally noble. As a 
curious instance of their moral ideas it may be men- 
tioned that gratitude was the highest esteemed virtue. 
They believed that happiness in the coming life de- 
pended entirely upon well doing in the present life. 
They believed in the transmigration of souls, but at 
last the soul must come to trial before the judgment- 
seat of the gods. Osiris presided over the trial, at 
which there were forty-two gods present as examining 
judges. If the decision of this divine tribunal proved 
favorable the soul was sealed as justified and perfect. 

The Egyptian Book of the Dead describes the Hall 
of the Two Truths, where this last trial takes place. 
Addressing the Lord of Truth the soul denies having 
done evil, saying "I have not afflicted any, I have not 



The Egyptians. 45 

told falsehoods. I have not made the laboring man do 
more than his task. I have not been idle. I have not 
murdered. I have not committed fraud. I have not 
injured the images of the gods. I have not taken 
scraps off the bandages of the dead. I have not com- 
mitted adultery. I have not cheated by false weights. 
I have not kept milk from sucklings. I have not caught 
the sacred birds." Then turning to each god he makes 
the following assertions : "I have not been idle. I have 
not boasted. I have not stolen. I have not counter- 
feited, nor killed the sacred beasts, nor blasphemed, nor 
refused to hear the truth, nor despised God in my 
heart." Other texts in the Book of the Dead represent 
the soul as saying : "I have loved God. I have given 
bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty, garments to 
the naked and an asylum to the abandoned." 

Brugsch declares that a thousand voices from the 
tombs teach most of the sacred virtues of the Chris- 
tians. An inscription in Upper Egypt says : "He loved 
his father, he honored his mother, he loved his brethren, 
and never went from his home in bad temper. He never 
preferred the great man to the low one." Another 
says : "I was a wise man, my soul loved God. I was a 
brother to the great men and a father to the humble 
ones, and never was a mischief-maker." At Sais there 
is an inscription on the tomb of a priest who lived in the 
days of Cambyses, which says : "I honored my father, 
I esteemed my mother, I loved my brothers. I found 
graves for the unburied dead. I instructed little chil- 
dren. I took care of orphans as though they were my 
own children. For great misfortunes were on Egypt in 



46 Ancient Empires. 

my time, and on this city of Sais." The reHgious creed 
of a Pharaoh at Thebes is thus described : "I lived in 
truth, and fed my soul with justice. What I did to men 
was done in peace, and how I loved God, God and my 
heart well knew. I have given bread to the hungry, 
water to the thirsty, clothes to the naked, and a shelter 
to the stranger. I honored the gods with sacrifices, and 
the dead with offerings." 

MONUMENTS OF EGYPT. 

The obelisks are quadrangular pyramids cut out of a 
single block of granite, raised perpendicularly and cov- 
ered with inscriptions and hieroglyphic symbols. Many 
of them are two hundred feet high, and were made the 
chief ornaments of Rome by the conquerors. The 
pyramids are more lofty and still more astonishing in 
their structure. Their enormous bulk and strength 
enabled them to survive the dissolutions of time, and 
the inroads of barbarians. The largest of the three 
great pyramids forms a perfect square, each side of 
which measures about 700 feet at the base. The per- 
pendicular height is 500 feet, and its summit, although 
appearing from below as only a sharp point, is a square 
platform measuring twenty .feet on each side. This 
amazing structure is composed of stones of extraor- 
dinary size; large numbers of- them being thirty feet 
long, four feet high, and three feet wide. Herodotus 
estimated that one hundred thousand workmen were 
employed at the same time in erecting this stupendous 
monument. Diodorus and Pliny both assert that there 
were even a greater number of workmen than this, who 



The Egyptians. 47 

were employed for three months and then dismissed, to 
be followed by another levy of an equal number of men, 
continuing in this succession until the completion of the 
pyramid. At this rate it took thirty years to complete 
the work. As an incident of the cost, we are told that 
the single item of vegetables furnished to workmen 
amounted to sixteen hundred talents ; that is, nearly one 
million, seven hvindred thousand dollars. 

Herodotus, however, says that this stupendous work 
was exceeded by the labyrinth which he himself exam- 
ined. This structure contained within the same en- 
closure three thousand rooms, twelve of which were so 
elaborately and magnificently constructed as to be justly 
called palaces. Fifteen hundred of these rooms were 
under ground, all communicating with one another by 
such a complication of circuitous passages as to make it 
impossible for a stranger to find his way out unless as- 
sisted by a skillful guide. The ceiling and walls were 
all composed of white marble, embellished with costly 
carvings. 

Another of the remarkable monuments of ancient 
Egypt was the mausoleum of Osymandias, one of the 
Egyptian kings. This curious structure was encom- 
passed with a circle of gold 22 inches wide and about 
six hundred and seventy feet in circumference. On 
every side was depicted the rising and setting sun, the" 
moon and the constellations. Even at that remote 
period the Egyptians divided the year into twelve 
months, consisting each of thirty days. At the end of 
the year they added five days to complete the total num- 
ber of 365 days. The precious ornaments of the sub- 



48 Ancient Empires. 

lime and costly mausoleum of Osymandias were car- 
ried away by Cambyses, king of Persia, when he con- 
quered Egypt. 

In Upper Egypt was the city of Thebes, which, in 
its extent and magnificence, was itself a world of won- 
ders. Even if allowance is made for the exaggeration 
of some ancient writers that it had one hundred gates 
and could send forth to war through each of them at 
the same time, two hundred chariots with ten thousand 
warriors — enough is certain to show that it had far 
more than one million inhabitants. The evidences ob- 
tained by recent explorers prove that it had a pro- 
digious variety of gigantic statues, porticos, columns 
and obelisks sufficient for the highest idea of the glory, 
riches and splendor of the grandest of ancient mon- 
archies. 



THE HEBREWS. 

ABRAHAM THE FOUNDER OF THE JEWISH NATION. 

Noah sent forth his son Shem with the prophetic 
benediction that he was more blessed than his breth- 
ren. From this stock came Abraham, the progenitor of 
the Messiah, and the father of the faithful. He was 
born in the country of the Chaldees, and in the midst of 
an idolatrous and corrupt people he retained the wor- 
ship and knowledge of the true God. 

With his family and his flocks he journeyed from the 
Chaldaean country and remained for a while at Haran 
and Gerah, where his father died. At this place God 
bade him depart from his people and go into the land of 
Canaan where he would find a country which his pos- 
terity should inhabit. Abraham took his family and 
his nephew, Lot, and lived for a time in the promised 
land. At last a famine compelled him to go to Egypt 
for corn, and on his return to Canaan he divided the 
country they inhabited with Lot, taking the plain of 
Mamre for himself and giving the valley of Jordan to 
Lot. Not long after Chedorlaomer, King of Elam, the 
territory afterward called Persia, invaded Canaan and 
took Lot prisoner. Abraham immediately armed his 
trained servants and making an unexpected assault on 
the conqueror recaptured Lot and all the spoils. 

The limited domains of the kings at that time may be 
well understood from the fact that in this military ex- 
cursion Abraham's army consisted of only three hun- 

(49) 



50 Ancient Empires. 

dred and eighteen fighting men. Sodom had now be- 
come so wicked that Lot, by divine command, abandoned 
the Valley of Jordan, and the wicked cities of the plain 
were destroyed by fire. Abraham then removed from 
Mamre and went to Gerar where he led a peaceful life 
among his herds. 

Abraham had two sons : Ishmael, who is classed as 
the father of the Arabians, and Isaac, who became his 
father's heir. After the death of Abraham the family 
increased in numbers, power and property, so that the 
sons of Isaac were among the strongest in the land. 
Chief among them was Jacob, who afterward was 
called Israel. Jacob had twelve sons, among whom 
he distinguished Joseph with blamable partiality. The 
brethren envied and hated this favored one and at the 
first opportunity sold him as a slave into Egypt. After 
various vicissitudes, as learned in Bible history, he be- 
came Prime Minister, to Pharaoh, the king. Famine 
again recurring in the land of Gerar, Jacob sent . his 
remaining sons into Egypt to buy bread. Joseph 
treated them with much seeming severity until he had 
made them sensible of his power ; then, in order to show 
them that he was too generous and noble to harbor re- 
venge, he said t© the brethren, "I am Joseph, your 
brother; be not grieved, God sent me before you." 
With the next year Jacob removed to Egypt with his 
whole family, including Judah, in whose line was the 
Messiah. The Egyptians esteemed very Hghtly their 
pastoral occupation and Joseph gave them all a resi- 
dence in the land of Goshen. 

After the death of the reigning king there arose an- 



The Hebrews, 51 

other who it is said "Knew not Joseph." From this 
date the IsraeHtes were very cruelly treated, neverthe- 
le^ss they increased greatly in numbers. 

In the course of time a deliverer arose in the person 
of Moses. A command had gone forth that all the male 
infants of the Jews should be slain. Jochebed, the wife 
of Amram, had given birth to a son, which she con- 
cealed in her home for a time ; but, this being exceed- 
ingly dangerous, she committed him in pious trust to 
God, and then, m.aking a little ark of wicker work, she 
placed the child within it and set him among the flags 
on the bank of the Nile. Miriam, his younger sister, 
sat at a distance and watched to see what might befall 
him. Pharaoh's daughter, the Princess of Egypt, came 
to the stream with her maidens to take her daily bath. 
Hearing the child cry, some of her attendants found it 
and brought it to the Princess, whose compassion and 
tenderness was moved by its beauty. Seeing Miriam 
the Jewish girl sitting not far away, the Princess sent 
for her to come and tell her if she knew of a Jewish 
woman who could be the child's nurse. Miriam imme- 
diately suggested Jochebed. The Princess not know- 
ing that it was the child's mother, took her as its nurse, 
adopting the child as her son, and causing him to be 
educated in all the learning of the Egyptians. With- 
out doubt Moses was duly informed of his birth by 
Miriam, who was his constant attendant, and by his 
mother who continued to be his nurse ; for, midst all the 
splendors of the Court, he cherished with bitterness the 
wrongs of his kindred and planned to set them free. 
His indignation could no longer be restrained when he 



52 Ancient Empires. 

was compelled to witness, in one of his walks along the 
Nile, the brutal treatment of a Hebrew by an Egyptian. 
Striking the offender dead, he at once fled from Egypt 
and went into the land of Midian. Here God spoke to 
him from the burning bush and commanded him to re- 
turn to Egypt for the deliverance of the Israelites. This 
he did, and after the visitation of many judgments upon 
the obstinate Pharaoh that king was compelled to con- 
sent to the departure of the Hebrews. No sooner had 
they left the borders of the country, however, than 
Pharaoh repented of his permission and pursued them 
into the Red Sea, through the miraculously divided 
waters. When the Israelites had passed out on the far 
side, the wall of waters closed over the pursuers and 
destroyed them. In commemoration of this deliverance 
of the Israelites the Feast of the Passover was insti- 
tuted by the command of Jehovah. 

THE JEWISH THEOCRACY. . 

Under the guidance of Moses the Israelites left 
Egypt and directed their course toward Canaan. In 
the neighborhood of Mt. Sinai the Ten Commandments, 
known as the Moral Law, were given to Moses under 
the most impressive circumstances. Through divine 
command, Moses formed a civil constitution and made 
laws for the government of the new nation. The gov- 
ernment thus formed acknowledged no head but that 
of Jehovah, thus constituting a pure theocracy. The 
vital principle of their laws was purity in religious wor- 
ship, which presented an insuperable barrier to poly- 
thesism. One of the most stringent restrictions was 



The Hebrews. 53 

that they should, under no conditions, intermingle with 
other nations, which at that time were universally 
idolatrous. 

During the following forty years the nation wandered 
in the wilderness and the fathers who had come out of 
Egypt descended to their graves, while the children 
were fitted by their constant hardships, to contend with 
the poweiful tribes, who were then in possession of 
Canaan. After learning strict obedience to the laws 
given them through Moses they were permitted to 
emerge from the wilderness and behold before them 
the Land of Promise. After obtaining a victory over 
the Midianites on the borders of the land of Canaan, 
Moses died. He was incomparably the greatest law- 
giver of all time, the first of historians and favored 
beyond all other men in his personal intercourse with 
the Deity. Moses was succeeded by Joshua who car- 
ried on a seven years' war of conquest successfully 
against the Canaanites. The divine command had 
called for a total extermination of the idolatrous na- 
tives. This had not been fulfilled and its result was 
fatal for the future peace of the Israelites. The land 
was soon surveyed and divided equally among the 
tribes. After the death of Joshua the government was 
carried on by chiefs called judges. During this period 
the Jews frequently lapsed into the idolatry of the sur- 
rounding nations, and were compelled to contend con- 
tinually with the tribes who dwelt upon their borders. 
The most renowned among these judges were Deborah, 
Gideon, Jepthah and the prophet Samuel. At the end 
of four hundred and sixty years of government by these 



54 Ancient Empires. 

judges the rebellious Israelites demanded a king and 
Saul was appointed. He carried on wars successfully 
against the Amalekites and the Philistines, who for 
more than forty years had held the Israelites in subjec- 
tion. 

After the death of Saul, David, the son of Jesse, hav- 
ing distinguished himself in the Philistine wars, suc- 
ceeded to the throne of Judah. David was a young 
man, cool, deliberate and strong in counsel. He was 
of tender sensibility and felt keenly all the emotions of 
love, friendship and parental fondness. He also pos- 
sessed qualities seemingly incompatible. His physical 
beauty was delicate almost to femininity, and yet he was 
bold, and terrible in arms. His accomplishments were 
various and conspicuous. His knowledge of war and 
politics was profound, and his skill in music was such 
that it could calm the madness of Saul. His talent for 
poetry was of. a superior order, and his sacred songs 
have never been equaled. To him we owe the inimi- 
table beauty and sublimity of the Pslams. Such a man 
was David, who came to the throne of Judah beloved 
by God and man. Having sinned he was rebuked by 
the Prophet Nathan, after which he bitterly repented in 
great personal humility. Throughout his poems there 
is to be found the deepest strain of penitence and piety. 

Under Saul the purity of Jewish worship had degen- 
erated, but David, becoming sole m.onarch of all the 
tribes of Israel, restored the original worship of the 
fathers. On the site of Jebus, a strong fortress which 
he took from the Jebusites, he built the city of Jeru- 
salem, and made it the capital of his dominion. Syria 



The Hebrews. 55 

was made a Jewish province and the frontiers of his 
sovereignty were extended to the limits of the promised 
land. Commerce revived and valuable articles of mer- 
chandise came into his kingdom through his alliance 
with the Syrians. With him originated the idea of 
building a great and costly temple for the v/orship of 
God. He made extensive preparations to this purpose, 
but left the execution of his plans to his son and suc- 
cessor, Solomon. This eminent ruler made wisdom his 
chief,and during his reign the Jewish nation came to its 
utmost height of splendor and power. Although he was 
in the midst of bold and designing enemies his triumph 
over all obstacles was complete an<l he made treaties 
with the neighboring powers which brought peace and 
prosperity to his kingdom. Through his alliance with 
Hiram, king of Tyre, he received most of the splendid 
decorations which adorned his magnificent temple, but 
in his later years Solomon fell into many grievous 
errors and sins, through which he both distressed his 
country and lost the favor of Jehovah. 

In this disastrous period the country became impov- 
erished, although Jerusalem had been made a great cen- 
ter of trade, and was enriched by the residence of the 
Court. To add to the distress of the kingdom, Syria 
became disaffected, threw off the yoke of Israel and set 
up a government of its own. The last days of this great 
king were still further disturbed by the insurrections of 
Jeroboam and the Edomites. Solomon died after a 
reign of forty years, which, taken all in all, was the 
brightest period known in the history of the Jews. 

The splendid genius of David had extended the He- 



56 



Ancient Empires. 



brew dominion from Phoenicia to the Red sea, and from 
the Euphrates to the Mediterranean. Vast treasures 
had been amassed by David, so that when Solomon 
came to the throne he inherited such means as, in the 
exercise of wisdom, made him the most powerful and 
wealthy prince of his age. 

But the alliance with Tyre, enriching as it did the 
capital and the court, brought such luxury and the con- 
sequent train of evils that an inevitable degeneration of 
the people was introduced. When Rehoboam, the son 
of Solomon, came to the throne the burdens of the peo- 
ple were almost too grievous to be borne. To a depu- 
tation praying for redress he made a haughty and inso- 
lent answer: "My father made your yoke heavy, but 
I will add to your yoke." 

Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, who had fled into Egypt 
after an unsuccessful insurrection in the reign of Solo- 
mon, was recalled to lead a revolt organized by the ten 
tribes. This being successful the Hebrew nation be- 
came divided into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel. 
According to prophecy the Messiah, in whom the Jew- 
ish nation centered their hopes, was to be born of the 
tribe of Judah. There now remained to Rehoboam, 
who was the representative of this family, only the 
tribe of Benjamin. The other ten tribes constituted the 
kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam. Israel was the 
larger kingdom and much more populous, but Judah 
possessed the chief city and was therefore much richer. 
The power of these two kingdoms being thus so nearly 
equal, their bitter contests were so much the more ob- 
stinate and disastrous. Jerusalem exerted a strong in- 



The Hebrews. 57 

fluence to draw subjects away from Jeroboam, and 
threatened to establish in his kingdom its malevolent 
species of idolatry. During this time Judah was in- 
vaded by Shishak, king of Egypt, who despoiled the 
temple and the king's palace. At the end of a troublous 
reign of seventeen years, Rehoboam was succeeded by 
his son, Abijah. An attempt was made to recover 
Israel and a subsequent victory was obtained over 
Jeroboam. Asa, the successor of Abijah, reformed and 
purified the public worship. He encouraged the sub- 
jects of Jeroboam to return to their former allegiance, 
and to take part in the great national feasts at Jeru- 
salem. This pious and capable Prince brought peace 
and prosperity again to Judah. But the Israelites fell 
deeper and deeper into the idolatrous practices of the 
neighboring nations, 

Samaria was founded by Oinri and became the cap- 
ital of Israel. Benhaded was now at the head of the 
independent kingdoms of Syria. Quarreling with the 
IsraeHtes, he declared war and invaded Israel, but was 
repulsed and finally defeated by Ahab, the wicked and 
idolatrous son of Omri. Ahab had espoused the wor- 
ship of the Phoenicians, and it was at this time that the 
Prophet Elijah fearlessly encountered the four hundred 
Priests of Baal during the worship of the Phoenicians. 
In the contest before the people between Elijah and the 
I'riests of Baal, fire from Heaven descended upon the 
sacraments of Elijah, thus verifying his claims as the 
true Prophet of God. Nevertheless he was disregarded 
and the people continued in their idolatry. 

After a long reign, Asa, king of Judah, died, and 



58 Ancient Empires. 

was succeeded by his son, Jehosaphat, a worldly and 
eminent man, who entered into an alliance with the king 
of Israel, and caused his son, Jehoram, to espouse 
Athaliah, daughter of Ahab. Jehu, then succeeding to 
the throne of Israel, determined to destroy the family of 
Ahab. Ahaziah, son of Athaliah, who had become king 
of Judah, was among the slain in the insurrection that 
followed. Athaliah, in order to be supreme in Jeru- 
salem, caused her son's children to be put to death, thus 
seemingly imperiling the prophecy that the Messiah 
should descend from the house of David. In the midst 
of the massacre one infant was saved through the com- 
passion of Jehoshaba, wife of the high priest Jehoida. 
This child was concealed for six years, and at the age 
of seven was proclaimed king in the temple, under the 
name of Joash. Hearing the uproar of welcome to the 
new king, Athaliah rushed into the temple crying trea- 
son, but she was instantly seized and soon met her death. 
Following the elevation of Joash to the throne sev- 
eral stormy wars took place between Israel and Syria, 
without materially affecting the general state of the 
Jews. The chief danger to the existence of the He- 
brew nation came from the direction of the Assyrians. 

SUBJUGATION OF THE JEWS. 

Under the ruins of the first Assyrian Empire in 747 
B. C, after an existence of 1,450 years, were raised 
the kingdoms of Babylon, Media and Ninevah. Be- 
lesis, known as Nabonasser, was the first monarch of 
Babylon, and Tiglath-Pileser was the first king of 
Ninevah. When Judah was invaded by the kings of 



The Hebrews. 59 

Israel and Damascus, Ahaz solicited aid of Tiglath- 
Pileser. Taking advantage of this opportunity he at 
once sent an army into Palestine, overran Syria, cap- 
tured Damascus, subjugated Israel, then under Hosea, 
and possessed himself of all the Hebrew territory 
beyond Jordan. He then exacted tribute from Ahaz, 
and this unfortunate king soon found that in freeing 
Judah from the Syrians and Israelites he had intro- 
duced a more powerful and implacable enemy. Shal- 
maneser then came to the throne of Assyria. He con- 
tinued the plan of his predecessor ^ to subjugate the 
Hebrews. Samaria was besieged and compelled to 
surrender, after enduring the most dreadful horrors of 
famine. The ten tribes that had revolted from Reho- 
boam, son of Solomon, and left the Jewish worship for 
the idolatry of the Phoenicians, now suffered the pen- 
alty of their disobedience and were carried into captiv- 
ity. They were transported into the mountainous 
regions of interior Asia, and from that time they ut- 
terly vanished from the records of men. The fate of 
these lost tribes has furnished material for much 
curious speculation, but not one tangible fact has ever 
been unearthed. 

Tyre, then a wealthy commercial city, was next in- 
vested by the army of Shalmaneser. The besieged 
people resisted him with the most heroic courage for 
five years, at which time the siege was ended by the 
death of the Assyrian king. Sennacherib, succeeding 
him, exacted a heavy tribute from Hezekiah, king of 
Judah. He then attempted to conquer Egypt and be- 
sieged Pelusium but the Egyptians so victoriously and 



60 Ancient Empires. 

effectively resisted him that he returned and demanded 
from Hezekiah the surrender of Jerusalem. The 
awful fate of the ten tribes stood vividly before the 
memory of the inhabitants and they looked forward 
with consternation to the destruction of their city. 
Courage was now given to the demoralized people by 
the exhortations of the Prophet Isaiah, who assured 
the king that if he trusted in the God of Israel the 
power of the Assyrians should be broken. In answer 
to this promise the Lord sent at midnight the Angel 
of Death to the camp of the Assyrians. In the morn- 
ing one hundred and eighty-five thousand Assyrian 
soldiers lay dead upon the plain. Sennacherib re- 
turned in consternation to his capital, where he was 
soon assassinated. Manasseh, son of Hezekiah, now 
came to the throne at Judah, and "Essar-haddon, son of* 
Sennacherib, became monarch of Assyria. Babylon, 
having become weakened by internal dissensions, was 
taken by Essar-haddon and reunited to the Empire. 
After the miraculous visitation upon the army of Sen- 
nacherib, Syria and Palestine threw off their alle- 
giance, but Essar-haddon reconquered them, removed 
the Israelites from their country and supplied their 
place with an idolatrous people from beyond the Eu- 
phrates. He then captured Jerusalem and took pris- 
oner Manasseh, the profligate king of Judah, but a 
few years later released him and restored him to his 
kingdom. 

In contrast to the other rulers of the Hebrews, 
Josiah purified the national worship, repaired the 
temple, and thoroughly extricated all forms of idola- 



The Hebrews. 6i 

try, but his virtues were unable to turn aside the fate 
decreed against the rebellious Jews. In the wars that 
followed between the Egyptians and Assyrians, Josiah 
opposed the passage of the Egyptian army through 
Judea. The result was a disastrous battle in the Val- 
ley of Megiddo. The Jews were defeated and Josiah 
fled. Necho, the Egyptian king, then marched on to 
Assyria, conquering everything in his course. He 
then turned back to Jerusalem and took that city, de- 
throning Jehoahaz, youngest son of Josiah, and made 
Jehoiakim king. The weakness of the Babylonians 
being shown by the easy victories of Necho, the 
Syrians and Jews were encouraged to throw off the 
Assyrian yoke. At this time Assyria was governed by 
Nabopolasser in connection with his son, Nebuchad- 
nezzar. During the time of this powerful and ener- 
getic Prince, the Assyrian army recaptured from the 
Egyptians, Carchemish, an Assyrian city command- 
ing the passage of the Euphrates. Syria and Palestine 
were then taken and added to the Assyrian dominion. 
Jerusalem was overthrown, and the sacred vessels of 
the temple carried to Babylon. A revolt against the 
Assyrian rule was begun by Mattaniah, known as Zede- 
kiah, who was third in succession from Jehoiakim. 
The Assyrian army appeared once more before the 
walls of Jerusalem. For nearly a year the inhabitants 
maintained a courageous resistance, hoping vainly for 
succor from Egypt. The city was at last taken by 
storm, and the Babylonians were given full reign to 
their hatred and vengeance. 

Zedekiah's children were murdered in his presence. 



63 Ancient Empires. 

His eyes were blinded and he was carried in triumph 
to Babylon. Jerusalem was destroyed, its treasures 
taken to enrich the luxurious Babylonians, and the in- 
habitants were scattered over the empire as slaves to 
the Assyrians. 

Four years later Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre, 
which resisted him for thirteen years. There was 
little, if anything, of value left in the city when it 
was at last taken, for the inhabitants had retired to an 
island not far distant with all of their valuables, where 
they built a new city also called Tyre. Egypt being rent 
by intestine wars, was now invaded by the Assyrians 
and subdued. The path of the victorious idolaters was 
easy and was marked with such horrible devastations 
that it took two generations for the people to recover. 

Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylon, and, as re- 
lated in the Scriptures, his heart was so hardened with 
pride that he was driven by the Almighty from the 
dwellings of human beings and ate the food of beasts, 
until he was compelled to acknowledge "That God 
ruleth over the kingdoms of man." When Cyrus be- 
came monarch of the Assyrians, he permitted a colony 
of Jews to return to Jerusalem for the purpose of re- 
building the temple. This colony was under the guid- 
ance of Zorobabel, descendant of a royal Jewish fam- 
ily. With him was associated the High Priest Joshua. 
The Jews did not respond as enthusiastically to the 
liberality of Cyrus as might be expected, as the wealth- 
ier and more influential part of the Hebrew people re- 
mained beyond the Euphrates. The colony that had 
been established in Samaria by Essar-haddon, when he 



The Hebrews. 63 

carried away the ten tribes of Israel, were bitterly op- 
posed to the return of the Jews, and at the death of 
Cyrus prevailed on his son, Cambyses, to forbid them 
from proceeding with the reconstruction of the temple. 
It was not until the reign of Darius Hystaspes that 
this interdict was removed. Ezra aroused the religious 
enthusiasm of the Jews for the pious task of rebuild- 
ing the temple, and many new colonists returned to 
Jerusalem. Nehemiah continued this good work, but 
it progressed very slowly, and was again abandoned. 

While Xerxes was at the head of the Persian Empire 
Jerusalem was governed by the satraps of Syria. 
When the Persian Empire began to decline the High 
Priests increased in power until they became actual 
chiefs, though still nominally under allegiance to Per- 
sia. Nehemiah, in his jealous zeal for the purity of 
the Jewish customs, ordered all Jews who had mar- 
ried heathen wives, to divorce them or quit Jerusalem. 
Of this number was Manesses, son of Jehoida the 
High Priest, who refused to part with his wife and so 
accompanied her to her father, Sanballat, who was 
Governor of Samaria. The influence of the colony of 
Assyrians that had been planted in Samaria was such 
that the Jews living there at this time had blended 
the worship of God to such an extent with the worship 
of Baal that it seemed impossible to draw the people 
from their idolatry. Sanballat obtained from Darius 
Nothus permission to build a temple at Mt. Gerizim, 
near Samaria. When it was completed he sent his 
son-in-law, Manesses as the High Priest. Bitter en- 
mity at once arose between the Jews and Samaritans 



64 Ancient Empires. 

because a superior sanctity was claimed for this temple 
to that of the one in Jerusalem. During the conten- 
tions of this hostile faction in Judea, the country was 
invaded by Alexander the Great. His first demand 
was an order upon Jerusalem for provisions and 
troops. In answer, Jaddus, the High Priest, said that 
he had sworn allegiance to the king of Persia, and it 
was impossible for the oath to be broken. When the 
siege of Tyre had been successfully completed, Alex- 
ander marched on to Jerusalem to take vengeance for 
this disobedience to his orders. Unable to resist the 
approach of the victorious Macedonian King, the High 
Priest cried in his distress to Heaven for protection. 
In the night a vision came to him through which he 
was instructed to open the gates of the city and strew 
the way of the victor with flowers. Arraying himself 
in the splendid vestments of the Levitical Priesthood 
he met the conqueror at the head of a train of Priests 
robed in white. To the astonishment of the Jews the 
triumphant king bowed his head and worshiped with 
all the fervor of an ardent convert. A friend of Alex- 
ander asked him why he, who was adored by others, 
should himself pay such homage to a Jewish Priest. 
Alexander answered, "I do not adore him, but the 
God whose minister he is. I knew him as soon as I 
saw him, to be the same whom I saw in a vision in 
Macedonia, when I meditated upon the conquest of 
Persia. He then assured me that his God would go 
before me and give me success." Walking into the 
midst of the Priests, Alexander embraced them and 
then marched with them into Jerusalem. Repairing 



The Hebrews. 6^ 

to the temple he there offered sacrifice in the most sol- 
emn manner. The prophecy of Daniel was then shown 
to him, and it was interpreted to foreshow that he was 
destined to overthrow the Persian power. The Jews 
were then encouraged to make requests of the friendly 
monarch, and during his life he continued to show 
them the most marked favor. Henceforth the history 
of the Jews is blended with that of their conquerors. 



THE ARABIANS. 

The Hebrews and the Arabians are beHeved to have 
had the same Mesopotamian origin. Esau is supposed 
to have been the progenitor of the Edomites ; Amalek, 
his grandson, the founder of the Amalekites, and 
Moab and Ammon, sons of Lot, were the fathers of the 
Moabites and Ammonites. Some ethnologists present 
the theory that these Arabians are African in their 
origin, while others give good reasons for the belief 
that they are Chaldsean. However, one signal fact is 
conceded that no other family of men ever retained 
unbroken possession of their land for so long a time. 
Certain portions of Arabia have never been in subjec- 
tion to foreigners. The Arab stock was planted in the 
peninsula before the Abrahamic tribes migrated to 
Canaan. The earliest historians of the Hamitic and 
Aryan races noted the presence of these people in 
Arabia. They were known to the primitive Hebrews 
who spoke of them as "a distant people, rich in frank- 
incense, spices, gold and precious stones." The in- 
scriptions of the Egyptians written before the six- 
teenth century B, C, give accounts of wars and other 
relations with the people of Punt as they called Arabia. 
Herodotus gives a lengthened description of the cus- 
toms and manners of the Arabians ; while Artemidorus 
of Ephesus, and Diodorus enter very minutely into 
their character and manner of living. Pliny says, 
"strange as it may seem, the Arabs live equally by plun- 

(66) 



The Arabia^ns. 67 

der and trade. What they get from their orchards 
and palm groves and from sea they sell ; but they pur- 
chase nothing in return." Amm^anus Marcellinus 
speaks of the people and country in this way : "The 
Arabs extend themselves from the Euphrates to 
Egypt. They go naked with only a colored apron 
around the body reaching to the middle. Every man 
is a warrior. On their swift, fine limbed horses and 
their camels they ride in all directions. They do not 
abide long in any one place. Without settled abodes 
they wander to and fro, and their whole life is nothing 
but a flight. Of bread and wine the most part of them 
know nothing whatever." 

Many other historians add to our knowledge of the 
ancient Arabians, but always from the traveler's point 
of view. Owing to their nomadic habits, which dif- 
fused their power rather than concentrated it, they 
never became conquerors, or attained such wealth as 
to incur the cupidity of invaders. 

Arabia has thirty-two native spice-bearing trees, 
and its gold deposits were the richest known in an- 
tiquity, but the Arabian civilization was lacking in 
the stability which was necessary to acquire wealth 
and strength. Their history illustrates the inaptitude 
of the Semitic race for the development of national 
power. It was not until the rise of Islam that the 
necessary unity and fixity of purpose was attained by 
that restless people. Even then, it was the Northwest 
of Arabia which built up the great Mohammedan 
power. Here lived the Saracens whose names became 
applied to most of the Arabian nations. In the hope 



68 Ancient Empires. 

of plunder, they forsook their deserts and were alter- 
nately the support and terror of Persia and Rome. 
They sold their services as mercenaries to the highest 
bidder, and their bravery usually resulted in victory. 

The persecuted Christians of the first six centuries 
fled for safety into Arabia, and Christianity thus be- 
came the prevailing religion. It was, however, cor- 
rupted by the most absurd superstitions common to the 
people, and the greatest moral depravity prevailed 
among both priests and people. The country was in 
this deplorable condition when Mahomet appeared, 
with a religion better adapted to the peculiar character 
of the people. 

This remarkable man was a native of Mecca, with- 
out education but with great mental talents. When 
about forty years of age, he proclaimed that he had 
received a divine commission for the propagation of a 
new religion. At this time, in A. D., 609, he withdrew 
to a place of retirement, where he affirmed that he held 
continual conference with the angel Gabriel. These 
discourses he collected into a volume which became 
the Mahometan Bible. 

However, the basis of his entire creed was laid in 
the two leading doctrines of his religion, which were, 
"There is but one God and Mahomet is his prophet." 
He did not deny the Jewish or Christian scriptures, 
but claimed merely to supercede them with a religion 
better adapted to the times. According to his doctrine 
Abraham, Moses and Jesus had been divinely com- 
manded to teach mankind, but he, himself, was de- 
clared to be the last and greatest of the prophets. He 



The Arabians. 69 

retained many of the rites of Judaism and adopted 
some of the morahty of the Christian gospel, but 
many of the Arabian superstitions were cleverly inter- 
mingled. His immediate success was doubtless owing 
largely to the great latitude which he gave to licen- 
tious indulgences, and to the promise to the soldier 
dying in his cause that he should go straight to a 
paradise of sensual pleasures. He inculcated the 
strictest fatalism and stimulated the warmest enthusi- 
asm and devotion by the assurance of a martyr's crown 
to all who should die in his service. 

The fundamental doctrine upon which his religion 
was founded is that "To fight for the faith is an act 
of obedience to God." Therefore, the ferocious and 
bloody ravages of the Saracens or Mohammedans 
became almost irresistible as religious crusades or 
Holy wars. It let loose a reign of natural fanaticism 
and barbarism. 

The first converts of Mahomet were his wife, 
Kadija, and his slave, Zeid. To these were soon added 
his cousin and son-in-law, the famous Ali, and his 
father-in-law, Abu beker, who was a man of great in- 
fluence. At the end of three years were added only 
ten more, but they were men of wealth and power. 
A popular tumult was raised against him at Mecca, 
and in order to save his life he fled in disguise to 
Medina. This flight or Hegira is the Mohammedan 
Era corresponding to A. D. 622. Medina received 
him as a man inspired of God, and he there assumed 
the sacerdotal and regal office. An army of followers 
was soon at his command, and he began to propagate 



70 Ancient Empires. 

his religion according to his doctrines by the sword. 
The caravans passing through Arabia were the first 
objects of his attacks, and by this wholesale robbery 
his soldiers were greatly enriched. Great numbers in 
the hope of booty now flocked to his standard, and he 
marched to the city of Mecca, which he captured and 
entered in triumph, about the year 629. From this 
time until his death, he was constantly among his 
soldiers in the field, arousing their enthusiasm and 
carefully disciplining them as warriors. In a short 
time he subdued Arabia, and completed the conquest 
of Syria. Ten years after the flight from Mecca to 
Medina he died at the age of sixty-three. His great 
success was accomplished in the inflexible severity 
which he exercised toward the vanquished. Three 
conditions were always offered to those whom he 
threatened with war. They must adopt his religious 
S3^stem, pay heavy tribute, or risk the fortunes of war. 
To those whom he was forced to fight, no quarter was 
given. Only the women, children and aged persons 
were spared, and these were sold into slavery. 

After Mahomet died his father-in-law Abubeker, 
who had risen to great repute among the Arabs, be- 
came the first caliph, this title signifying in Arabic, 
successor or vicar. He adhered strictly to the 
methods of Mahomet, and pushed forward his con- 
quests with unremitting severity and vigor. The chief 
cities of Syria, Bostra, Palmyra and Damascus, which 
had not been taken in the time of Mahomet, were be- 
sieged and captured by Kaled, commander of the Sara- 
cenic forces. The inhabitants were put to the sword, 



The Arabians. 71 

and the cities were at once occupied by the faithful. 
In the third year of his reign, Abubeker died in the 
sixty-third year of his age, having named Omar his 
successor or second caUph. 

Omar was fortunate in having the assistance of the 
celebrated general Obediah, who, in one campaign, 
completed the conquest of Syria, Phoenicia, Mes- 
sopotamia and Chaldsea. In the next campaign he re- 
duced the whole of Persia, and his army under Amrou 
took Alexandria and subdued Egypt. At this time 
most of the learned men of the world were gathered at 
Alexandria, because of the great library which con- 
tained more than half a million volumes. Amrou, 
when about to sack the city, was waited upon by a 
deputation of scholars who prayed him to spare the 
precious manuscripts. Not being sure of what he 
should do, Amrou wrote to the caliph for directions 
respecting the books. Omar answered that if they 
agreed with the Koran they were useless ; and if they 
differed from it they were dangerous, in either case 
they should be destroyed. Accordingly these books, 
which contained the gathered intelligence of antiquity, 
were distributed throughout the city and for six 
months served to warm the city baths. During the 
reign- of Omar, which lasted ten years, he reduced 
thirty-six hundred cities and villages to his obedience ; 
demolished four thousand Christian temples, and in 
their stead erected one thousand, four hundred 
mosques. Finally, he was assassinated, and was suc- 
ceeded by Othman, who added Bactriana and part of 
Tartary to the dominion of the caliphs. At the death 



72 Ancient Empires. 

of Othman, AH, who had married Fatima, daughter 
of Mahomet, was elected to the Cahphate. His reign 
was only five years in duration, but he is believed to 
have been the bravest and most virtuous of the caliphs. 

In half a century the Saracens exercised dominion 
over an empire more extensive than then remained to 
the Romans. Within a century after the flight of 
Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, the dominion of the 
caHphs extended from India to the Atlantic through 
the widely distant regions of Persia, Syria, Asia 
Minor, Arabia, Egypt, Northern Africa and Spain. 
During the reign of Ali occurred the schism in the 
ranks of Mohammedans, which still exists. Abu- 
beker, Omir and Othman were treated as usurpers by 
the partisans of Ali. The opponents of Ali named 
their adversaries shiites or sectaries, styling themselves 
sonnites or traditionaries, because they hold in equal 
veneration with the Koran, and Mahomet, the first 
three caliphs and their doctrines. The shiites, ac- 
knowledged the Koran only, and the two parties hate 
and anathematize each other with a fierceness and 
fanaticism equal to that which they visited upon the 
people of other religions. 

The Persians are of the sect of Ali; the Turks are 
sonnites, and Ottomans ; the latter holding Othman 
in special reverence. The seat of the Mussulman 
sovereigns was removed by Ali from Mecca to Cufa, 
on the Euphrates. In 768 Almansor changed the seat 
of government from Cufa to Bagdad. Since that time 
the caliphs of that sect are styled caliphs of Bagdad. 
Next to the Caliphate of Bagdad, that of Cordova, in 



The Arabians. 73 

Spain, was the most illustrious in Saracenic history. 
Almansor, the second caliph in the sect of Ali, made 
Bagdad the greatest and most splendid city in the 
world. He was a liberal partisan of learning and 
science, and was the first to introduce their cultivation 
among the Saracens. Haroun Al Raschid, fourth of 
the new dynasty, reigned from A. D. 781 to 805. He 
was the most illustrious of the caliphs of Bagdad. The 
splendor of his court was unexcelled, and he was re- 
nowned for the care with which he sought the ends 
of justice among his people, while protecting and en- 
couraging learning. Although he was surnamed The 
Just, he ravaged the territories of the Eastern Empire 
with great cruelty. His statesmanship was not below 
his prowess as a warrior, and upon the revival of the 
Western Empire he sought an alliance with Charle- 
magne. Among the presents sent by Haroun Al 
Raschid to Charlemagne, was the first clock that had 
ever been seen in Europe. His name is familiar to 
the world as the hero of the Arabian Nights' Enter- 
tainment. 

Almamon, the son and successor of Haroun Al 
Raschid, added greatly to the glory of Bagdad, and 
enriched the learning of his splendid court by the 
scholars of all nationalities which he made welcome at 
his court. His mathematicians believed the world to 
be round, and they made calculations first in the plains 
of Sinaar, and then in those of Cufa, in both of which 
they estimated the circumference of the earth to be 
twenty-four thousand miles. 

In the year 823 the Saracens conquered the Island 



74 Ancient Empires. 

of Crete, and for more than a century made it a 
market-place for the sale of captives taken in their 
wars. Its modern name, Candia, is derived from 
Chamdak, the name of their principal fortress in the 
island. The Saracens of Africa in 827 attacked Sicily. 
The western part of the island was overrun and the 
splendid harbor of Palermo, was for nearly a century 
and a half made the rendezvous for their piratical 
squadrons. The entire island was then under Moslem 
rule, and the Greek language and literature gave place 
to that of the Islam. The piratical squadrons issuing 
from the ports of Sicily, ravaged the coast of Italy, 
pillaged one hundred and fifty towns, and the victori- 
ous Arabians fought their way even to the walls of 
Rome. Pope Leo IV. secured an alliance of the Italian 
maritime states, and in 849 an allied fleet was sent 
against the Saracens off the port of Ostia. The allied 
fleet was defeated, but immediately after this a violent 
tempest destroyed the Arabian galleys. However, 
the Saracens were able to establish themselves in 
Southern Italy, and if the caliphites of the Eastern 
and Western Mohammedans had been united, Rome 
would have fallen and the history of the world greatly 
changed. 

The power of the caliphs began to be weakened by 
dissensions and quarrels, which compelled them to de- 
vote more of their energy to the task of upholding 
their authority than in following up their conquests. 
With the diminishing of their warlike enterprises other 
activity sprang up among them. Learning was not 
generally diffused among them, but their achievements 



The Arabians. 75 

in science and literature were greater than was ac- 
complished anywhere in Christendom. 

In all Mohammedan cities from Samarcand to Cor- 
dova, libraries and colleges were established, and the 
Greek philosophies were translated into Arabic, many 
of the original works being afterward lost, were pre- 
served only through the version of the Arabians. They 
possessed the writings of Aristotle, Plato, Euclid, 
Apollonius, Ptolemy, Hipprocrates and Galen. They 
excelled in mathematics and astronomy from the time 
of Abbassides to that of Tamarlane. The Arabians 
made the greatest advance of any ancient people in 
medicine. In the city of Bagdad alone eight hundred 
and sixty physicians were licensed and carried on a 
lucrative practice. Their skill was such that in Spain 
the life of the Catholic Princess was entrusted to the 
skill of the Saracens, and the School of Salerno was 
famous over all Europe. The science of chemistry 
originated with the Saracens, and they first named 
and used alembic for the purposes of distillation. They 
set the world to searching for the elixir of immortal 
life, and for the means of transmuting metals. During 
the tenth century the Caliphate of Cordova reached 
its greatest strength, while the Eastern caliphate was 
becoming more weak and powerless, the Caliph of 
Bagdad becoming reduced to the position of a petty 
prince. In A. D. 1055 he asked aid of Togrul Beg, 
Sultan of the Turks, against the encroachments of 
neighboring tribes, and the tyranny of his own troops. 
The Sultan came to his relief and the Caliph rewarded 
him by transferring to him all the temporal power 



76 Ancient Empires. 

that had formerly belonged to the caliphats. This made 
the Turkish Sultan master of Western Asia, and ac- 
knowledged leader of Islam. 

Alparslan, nephew and successor of Togrul Beg, 
defeated and took prisoner the Roman Emperor, 
Romanus, in 1071, thus extending his dominions to the 
Hellespont. His son, Malekshah, came to the throne 
in 1072. He was a bold and energetic leader, and with- 
out doubt the greatest prince of his age. He extended 
his empire over India to the borders of China. At his 
death there were a series of civil wars, and his exten- 
sive empire was divided into four parts. 

With regard to results, the most important conquest 
of the Turks was that of Jerusalem. In the thirteenth 
century a Scythian adventurer, named Zinghis Kahn, 
at the head of a vast horde of Moguls and Tartars, 
came from Eastern Asia and overran all the country to 
the borders of the Persian Gulf, establishing the great 
Mogul Empire. He died in 1227, and his grandson, 
Kublai Khan, completed the conquest of the Chinese 
Empire, adding all the Southern province to his 
dominion and threatening to overwhelm the West. 
This great Mogul Emperor entertained Marco Polo, 
the renowned Venetian traveler, at his court, and he 
received an embassy from the Pope, with which he 
agreed to allow Christian missionaries to settle in 
China. 

Octia, the son of Zinghis Khan, selected an army of 
seven hundred and fifty thousand men with the pur- 
pose of overrunning Europe. They devastated the 
country from Livonia to the Black Sea, Moscow and 



The Arabians. 77 

Kiev being destroyed in his course. The Moguls then 
passed through Poland to the borders of Germany, 
where they were met by the followers of the king of 
Poland, the Duke of Silesia, and the Grand Master of 
the Teutonic Knights. A final battle was fought at 
Liegnitz, in which the Moguls were victorious. Their 
losses compelled them, however, to abandon Germany 
and turn southward into Hungary A. D. 1241, where 
King Bela IV. was defeated and the whole country 
north of the Danube devastated. 

Baton then almost depopulated the adjacent terri- 
tory of Servia, Bosnia and Bulgaria, marching back 
to the Volga on the death of Oitai, A. D. 1245. At this 
time Kublai Kahn was sovereign over the most ex- 
tensive empire ever known. It embraced nearly the 
whole continent of Asia and stretched through Europe 
to the Baltic Sea. After his death this vast empire 
was divided among his lieutenants, and in the four- 
teenth century there arose in the ruins a power almost 
as formidable and ferocious — that of the Ottoman 
Turks. 



THE LYDIANS. 

Among the various Aryan nations that inhabited 
Asia Minor, Lydia, at first called Maconia, ultimately 
became the most famous and powerful. The first in- 
habitants of this territory to appear in the annals of 
history migrated from the East, the migrating tribes 
being all nearly equal in power. As Asia Minor is 
divided into natural sections by mountain ranges, it 
was not favorable to the consolidation of tribes into a 
powerful kingdom. Herodotus tells us that in his time 
Asia Minor was divided up among thirty nations. The 
Phrygians were doubtless the first Aryan immigrants. 
They came from the mountains of Armenia, bringing 
with them traditions of the deluge, quite similar to the 
scriptural narrative. Before the time of Homer the 
Phrygians had many well built towns, and pursued a 
flourishing commerce. Their monarchy was organ- 
ized B. C. 750, if not earlier, and their capital was at 
Gordium, on the Sangarius river. The kings, most 
noted in the fabulous portion of Lydian history, were 
Gordias and Midas. As Lydia grew powerful Phrygia 
declined and became subject to the Lydians B. C. 560. 

In the southeastern part of Asia Minor there was 
a rich and fertile country, known as Cilicia, which was 
devoted entirely to agriculture. It was an independent 
territory until subdued by the Assyrian king, Sargon, 
about B. C. 711. Ten years later, because of a revolt, 
it was ravaged by Sennacherib, who founded in B. C. 

(78) 



The Lydians. 79 

685, the city of Tarsus. It successfully maintained its 
independence against all the efforts of the Lydians, 
but was overcome by the Persians during the reign of 
Cambyses, the son of Cyrus. 

Lydia was situated on the east coast of the peninsula. 
Sardis was its capital, and its principal cities were 
Magnesia, at the foot of Mt. Sipylus, Thayatara, and 
Philadelphia. Ephesus, on the coast, was chief of the 
Greek cities. 

The origin of Lydian riches came from the rich 
supply of gold which was found in the sands of the 
Pactolus, a tributary of the Hermus river. Gold was 
also found in considerable quantities on the slopes of 
Mt. Tmolus, and was washed from the sands in the 
streets of Sardis, the capital, which was situated at the 
foot of that mountain. 

The Lydians were people of culture as well as of 
wealth, and they were the first to have coined money. 
At a very early period Lydia was organized as a mon- 
archy, and until the seventh century B. C. was govern- 
ed by a dynasty called the Heraclidse. Herodotus says 
that the Lydian traditions represent Ninus and Belus, 
the founders of Ninevah and Babylon, as being natives 
of Lydia. It was the Lydian general, Ascalus, who, 
pushing his conquests to the southern extremity of 
Syria, founded the famous city of Ascalon in the land 
of the Philistines. 

All the internal difficulties of the Lydians appear to 
have risen from the rivalry of the two royal houses 
of Heraclidse and Mermnadae. The Heraclidae at 
first victorious, were subsequently overthrown by the 



80 Ancient Empires. 

Mermnadse, and their chief, Gyges, mounted the 
Lydian throne B. C. 700. Under him the Greeks of 
the Asiatic coast were reduced to submission, and such 
immense revenues flowed into the royal treasury that 
I.ydia became proverbial for its vast riches. Toward 
the close of the reign of Gyges, about B. C. 662, a 
Celtic people from beyond the Caucasus, named Cim- 
merians, marched over the moutains, slew King 
Gyges in battle, and sacked Sardis, the capital of 
Lydia. About B. C. 617, Alyattes, a great grandson of 
Gyges, came to the throne and expelled the Cim- 
m.erians from Asia Minor. It was through this event 
that the lesser nations of Asia Minor acknowledged 
the supremacy of Lydia About B. C. 615 Lydia be- 
came involved in war with Media and Babylonia while 
attempting to resist the encroachments of Media to- 
wards the west. Through the mediation of the 
Babylonian king, five years later, Lydia and Media 
became friends, and the son of Cyaxeres married the 
Princess of Lydia. Having in this way secured strong 
allies in the East, Alyattes pressed forward his conquest 
over the Asiatic Greeks. Smyrna was soon captured, 
and his complete authority established. Alyattes died 
B. C 568, and was succeeded to the throne by his son, 
the famous Croesus. 

Herodotus tells us that the Lydians were the first 
to engage in the business of shop-keeping. They were 
skillful musicians, being the inventors of the flute and 
cithara, and they were a brave and manly people. 
Most of their fighting was done on horseback, and 
Nicolas of Damascus says that they could muster 



The Lydians. 8i 

thirty thousand cavalry even in the time of the Hera- 
clidse dynasty. In their six years war with Media, the 
Lydians successfully defended themselves against the 
Eastern hordes that were sent against them ; but, as 
Herodotus tells us, peace was brought about by an 
eclipse of the sun in the midst of one of their most 
desperate battles. The obscuration of the sun excited 
such superstitious fears on both sides that negotiations 
for peace were at once begun, which ended in securing 
the closest friendship between the two nations. Under 
Croesus, Lydia reached the highest pinnacle of her 
glory and prosperity, but at this time the Persians were 
rapidly growing into that power which made them 
master of all the , known world outside of Europe. 
During the latter part of the reign of Alyattes, Croesus 
was associated with his father in the government of 
Lydia. Some time during this period the court of 
Lydia was visited by Solon of Athens, one of the 
Seven Wise Men of Greece. The distinguished guest 
was entertained with great hospitality in the palace, 
but the sage paid so little heed to the magnificence of 
the court that the Crown Prince was greatly annoyed. 
Solon was taken to the royal treasury, that he might be 
awed by the incalculable stores therein, but he looked 
with less interest upon the great heaps of gold than 
upon the art displayed in the structure of the building. 
Croesus having exhausted his resources to draw a 
compliment from the great Grecian lawgiver, then 
asked him to name the happiest man he had met in 
all his travels. Considering the almost limitless re- 
sources and power in the hands of Croesus, that prince 



83 Ancient Empires. 

expected himself to be named by Solon as the happiest 
man. However, Solon replied : "The happiest man 1 
have ever known was one Tellus, an Athenian, a very 
honest and good man, who lived all his days without 
indigence, saw his country in a flourishing condition, 
had children that were universally esteemed, and en- 
jo)^ed the satisfaction of seeing his children's children 
likewise brought up in honorable ways. He at last 
died gloriously on the field of victory fighting for his 
country, and was rewarded by a public funeral by the 
city." 

Astonished at this unexpected reply, Croesus asked 
Solon whom he regarded as the next happiest man. 
The philosopher then named two brothers of Argos, 
who had won the admiration of their countrymen by 
their devotion to their mother. These brothers were 
rewarded by the gods with a pleasant and painless 
death. Then, in still greater astonishment, Croesus 
said, "Man of Athens, think you so meanly of my 
prosperity as to rank me below private persons of low 
conditions?" Solon did not wish either to flatter or 
disappoint the famous prince, so he said, "King of 
Lydia, the Greeks have no taste for the splendors of 
royalty ; moreover, the vicissitudes of life suffer us 
not to be elated by any present good fortune or to ad- 
mire that felicity which is liable to change. He, there- 
fore, upon whom Heaven smiles to the last, in our 
estimation, is the happy man." The Athenian sage 
then took his departure, but it is not recorded that the 
rebuke made Croesus a wiser or better man. 

The Court of Lydia is said also to have been visited 



TheLydians. 83 

by Aesop, the celebrated fabulist. The ancient chon- 
icler of this visit says that, in a conversation between 
Aesop and Solon, referring to the incident just re- 
lated, Aesop said to Solon : "You see that we must 
either not come near kings, or say whatever is agree- 
able to them." To which the philosopher replied : 
"We should either say what is useful or say nothing at 
all." Croesus soon came to understand, through the 
vicissitudes of fortune, the wise words of Solon. 

The Lydian monarch had two sons. One of them 
was dumb, but the other, named Atys, was endowed 
with superior accomplishments. Both of them came to 
unhappy ends, Atys, heir to the throne, being acci- 
dently killed in a boar hunt near Olympus, in Mysia. 
Croesus mourned two years for the death of his son, 
when the encroachments of Cyrus the Great, brought 
forth all his energies to preserve his throne. He entered 
into an alliance with Egypt, Babylon and Sparta, but it 
only stayed for a time his inevitable fall. The Persians 
soon appeared at the borders of his kingdom and a bat- 
tle was fought at Cappadocia, after which Croesus re- 
treated toward Sardis. Cyrus pursued him, and a great 
battle, disastrous to Lydia, was fought at Thymbra, 
in which Cyrus had one hundred and ninety-six thou- 
sand men against a Lydian army of four hundred 
thousand. After this defeat, the mercenaries em- 
ployed by Croesus deserted him and returned to their 
homes. Croesus now withdrew to Sardis, where the 
Persians destroyed the Lydian army and captured the 
king. According to the barbarous customs of those 
times, Cyrus condemned the unhappy king to be 



84 Ancient Empires. 

burned alive. As fire was about to be applied to the 
funeral pile, Crcesus exclaimed bitterly, "O Solon ! 
Solon !" Cyrus being present asked what deity it was 
upon whom the Lydian king was calling. The cere- 
mony of burning the conquered king was stopped in 
order that Croesus might explain to Cyrus. The 
Persian king was so greatly affected by the wisdom 
contained in the story that he ordered the miserable 
captive to be set at liberty. 

Xenophon relates that Cyrus ever after treated 
Croesus as a friend, taking him as a companion through 
many of his most important campaigns. Lydia be- 
came a province of the great Medo-Persian Empire, 
and never reappeared in history as an independent 
nation. 



THE ASSYRIANS. 

The upper portion of the Mesopotamian valley was 
the home of the Assyrians. Mount Masius was on 
the northern boundary and the Zagros mountains upon 
the east. The Euphrates marked its western boundary 
and Chaldsea was on the South. The Tigris flowed 
through the center, dividing it into what may be 
termed Eastern and Western Assyria. Its area was 
about seventy-five thousand miles. Eastern Assyria 
was the most densely populated part of the kingdom. 
Three of the four great cities were located there, and 
Nineveh lay opposite the modern Mosul. Directly 
south of Nineveh, twenty miles, was Calah. Forty 
miles below this was Asshur, on the right bank of the 
Tigris. The whole region was one of great fertility, 
although it did not possess such advantages as Chal- 
dsea, its southern neighbor. Edible vegetables were 
largely cultivated in Assyria, and many of them, so 
largely used in modern times, were indigenous to that 
country. Iron, copper and lead existed in great abun- 
dance in the Tiyari mountains, not far from Nineveh, 
while other important metals were to be found in the 
Khurdish mountains. 

Like most of the ancient nations, the Assyrians were 
a deeply religious people. They were likewise fierce 
and treacherous, delighting in the dangers of the chase 
and in war. The Assyrian soldiers were greatly feared 
in ancient times, but that they were less cruel than 

(85) 



86 Ancient Empires. 

other nations may be inferred from the fact that they 
took so many male prisoners as captives in war. 

In their achievements they deserve to be ranked 
among the foremost in Asia. 

Some time after the conquests of Nimrod there was 
an emigration of the Semitic people from the lower 
country to the north. Whether this was a voluntary 
act or an enforced colonization cannot be determined. 
The Assyrian sprang from the tribe of Asshur, and 
it is certain that these people were, for a long period 
of time, governed by rulers sent from the Chaldsean 
kings, but at last we find them with an independent 
government of their own, having the seat of empire 
at the city of Asshur. The date of this independence 
from Chaldsea is uncertain, but there is evidence that 
the early Assyrian kings were related to the Chaldaean 
sovereigns by marriage. For an indefinite period the 
two nations existed together as close friends. 

Assyria, during this period, was always involved 
in the domestic troubles of the Chaldaean crown, and 
one of the Assyrian kings, Asshur-up-allit, caused the 
crown of Chaldsea to be placed upon the head of the 
rightful heir^ who was his relative. 

One of the kings of this period, about B. C. 1320, 
named Shalmaneser I, conducted successfully wars in 
the Niphates mountains, and he founded Calah, now 
known as Nimrud, on the east bank of the Tigris. 
From this it is clear that Assyria had widened its 
borders to the far north, and was entering upon its 
great career of conquest and prosperity. However, 
its arts were exceedingly rude and its civilization just 



The As&yrians. 87 

begun. The cities were all built in the quadrangular 
form, the temples were made in pyramidal towers, and 
the royal palaces were set upon lofty artificial mounds. 

The original of the Greek Ninus was probably Tig- 
lathi-Nin I, the son of Shalmaneser. This monarch 
overthrew Babylon about B. C. 1300, and Chaldaea 
was subject to the Assyrian kingdom for at least a 
century. 

About B. C. 1 1 50 Asshur-Ris-ilum came upon the 
historical stage and engaged extensively in foreign 
wars, which prepared the way for the conquests of his 
son, Tiglath-Pileser I. Babylonia was invaded by him, 
and he concluded a successful war against Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Some writers believe that he is the monarch 
mentioned in the Book of Judges as Chushanris-Ath- 
aim, king of Mesopotamia. Tiglath-Pileser I suc- 
ceeded his father to the throne about B. C. 11 30. He 
subdued the hostile tribes on the east and conquered 
Northern Syria. Babylon came under his control, and 
he caused great internal improvements to be made, 
among which was a wise system of irrigation that 
greatly increased the productiveness of the soil. He 
introduced the use of many foreign vegetables and 
brought many varieties of cattle into Assyria. He 
made his kingdom powerful and compact, centralized 
the resources of natural power, and caused his country 
to stand forth as the most prominent in Asia. 

At a very early period the Assyrians made use of 
letters, and carefully kept a record of their history. 
These records were engraved on stone or stamped in 
bricks. If papyrus was used by them at that time, as 



88 Ancient Empires. 

it was in Egypt, no effort was made to preserve the 
manuscript, since none has ever been found in the 
mounds opened by modern- explorers. They were 
skillful glass-blowers and designers, far surpassing 
in this and kindred industries all the nations of the 
East. They were less religious than the Egyptians 
and Greeks, bestowing most of their attention upon 
their kings rather than upon their gods. In proof of 
this, it may be noted that their religious structures 
were insignificant as compared with the royal resi- 
dences. 

The Assyrians delighted in the ornaments of dress. 
Men of rank wore long fringed robes, reaching to their 
feet and confined at the waist by a closely fitting belt 
or girdle. The sleeves were short and barely covered 
their shoulder. The women of the better class dressed 
in long fringed gowns, more sweeping than those of 
the men. The sleeves were long, and they usually wore 
a short cloak over their shoulders. Their hair was 
arranged in short, crisp curls, while the head was en- 
circled with a fillet. 

The religion of the Assyrians resembled that of the 
early Chaldseans, their principal divinity being the 
great god, Asshur. Sacrifices of animals and birds 
were made to idols of stone and clay. There religion 
was of a sensuous nature, but their ceremonies were 
imposing. 

After the reign of Asshur-Bil-Kala until the middle 
of the loth century B. C, there is little in Assyrian 
history of any interest. The uncertain period closed 
about the year B. C. 889, when Tiglathi-Nin II ascend- 



The Assyrians. 89 

ed the throne. In B. C. 883, his son, the great and 
powerful Asshur-Lzir-Pal, came to the throne. The 
career of Assyrian conquest then began. His tri- 
umphant armies ranged from the Zagros region into 
Armenia, Western Mesopotamia and Babylonia, In 
the short period of six years the country sprang from 
obscurity into greatness. During that time the king 
had conducted ten successful campaigns. The ninth 
of these campaigns is most interesting to the student 
of history. It was then that the Assyrian army 
marched directly across the Euphrates to Patena, the 
region about Antioch, and passed north of Lebanon to 
the Mediterranean. Laden with spoils he returned to 
his own country, and the rapid advance of Assyria in 
wealth and art was now in progress. Magnificent 
buildings were erected and every evidence of luxury 
displayed, literature was cultivated, and the records of 
each reign carefully cut in stone or impressed on 
cylinders of baked clay. Bactrian camels and elephants 
were imported, and the seat of government transferred 
to Calah. 

Shalmaneser II. succeeded his father to the throne 
B. C. 858, and reigned thirty-five years. He con- 
ducted twenty-three campaigns during the first twenty- 
seven years of his reign, overrunning nearly the whole 
of Asia from the borders of Persia to the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. This powerful king died B. C 823, and 
was succeeded by his son Shamas-Vul II., who reigned 
thirteen years. During this time Assyria was the 
greatest power in Asia. The dominion of Assyria 
extended west to the kingdom of Judah and north to 
Armenia. 



90 Ancient Empires. 

His son, Vul-Lush III. succeeded him B. C. 8io. 
This king in twenty-six campaigns estabHshed his 
supremacy over Babylonia, and the boundaries of the 
empire now included the whole territory between the 
Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean. His wife was 
heiress of Babylonia. 

At this time the Greeks and Romans came in contact 
with the Assyrians, and in their writings preserve a 
legendary story of the Queen of the Assyrians, which 
made her known as one of the greatest, as well as the 
most infamous personages in history. Her name was 
Sammuramit, but through the Greeks and Romans 
she was made famous as Semiramis. She was believed 
to be the wife of Ninus, the mythical founder of 
Nineveh, but it is now generally conceded that the acts 
attributed to her were fabulous and that she was at 
most simply joint ruler with Val-Lush HI., her hus- 
band, and that she assisted, through her wit and 
beauty, to make his reign illustrious. However, ac- 
cording to the story of the early historians, Ninus and 
Semiramis were the hero and heroine of old Assyrian 
and Babylonian chronicles. So great was the uncer- 
tainty of facts recorded of them by the Greeks and 
Romans that the different historians and chronologists 
were no less than a thousand years apart with regard 
to the time when they flourished. Ninus was repre- 
sented as a great and powerful sovereign, and is said 
to have made Nineveh the greatest and most powerful 
city in Asia. After having made extensive conquests 
he espoused Semiramis, who succeeded him on the 
throne as Queen of the Assyrians. She is described 



The Assyrians. 91 

by her historians as not only surpassing all her sex in 
wit and beauty, but also in possessing the most extra- 
ordinary talents for governinent and war. On coming 
to the throne, she sought to enlarge and make more 
powerful the city of Babylon. Other parts of her 
empire, however, received a proportionate share of her 
attention and she left many magnificent monuments 
and noble structures reared for the convenience and 
ornament of her cities. She improved the roads 
through her empire by cutting through mountains and 
filling up valleys, and she brought water through 
acqueducts to such places as needed it. Diodorus 
states that in his time, just before the coming of Christ, 
there were many monuments still to be seen with her 
name and deeds inscribed upon them. 

Her armies made vast conquests, and she often ac- 
companied the expeditions. In one of these she in- 
vaded India with a vast army collected from all parts 
of her empire. When the Indian king heard of her 
invasion, he sent ambassadors to ask her by what right 
she had come into his territory, adding that her bold- 
ness would soon meet with deserved punishment. 
"Tell your master, answered the Queen, that in a short 
time I, myself, will come to let him know who I am." 
At the river Indus she was met by the Indian army, 
and although her army was victorious, she lost about 
one thousand boats and more than one hundred thou- 
sand of her troops were taken prisoners. Semiramis 
left a body of sixty thousand men to protect a bridge 
of boats, which she had built over the river, and pre- 
pared to advance. The Indian monarch feigned great 



93 Ancient Empires. 

fear, and his army fled at her approach, but when the 
Assyrians were far enough advanced into his domin- 
ions he attacked her on all sides with a great multitude 
of men and elephants. The engagement was disastrous 
to Semiramis, and her troops were thrown into dis- 
order. In attempting to recross the river a panic pre- 
vailed among her troops and nearly half of them 
perished. When the survivors were safely across the 
Queen ordered the bridge destroyed, and the army pro- 
ceded to the city of Bactra, where prisoners were ex- 
changed, and the unhappy expedition abandoned. This 
queen, so celebrated in song and story, is said to have 
reigned forty-two years, and died at the age of sixty- 
two. 

Vul-Lush III. died in the year B. C. 781, and for the 
half century following his reign little is known of the 
history of Assyria, ^t was unquestionably a period of 
weakness and decay. 

About this time there appeared at Nineveh a 
stranger, who walked through the streets uttering in 
a strange tongue the startling words, "Yet forty days 
and Nineveh shall be overthrown." This cry, coming 
from the Prophet Jonah, at a time when Assyria was 
enervated by luxury, and was threatened by foreign 
and domestic foes, caused the people to be seized with 
great consternation and alarm. The frightened serv- 
ants of the king ran to him with the story of the 
strange man and his prophecy. The monarch, over- 
whelmed with fear, left his throne, threw aside his 
robe, and covered himself with sackcloth and ashes. 
He framed an edict for a great fast, in the hope of 



The Assyjians. 93 

turning aside the calamity. According to Scripture, 
he "caused it to be proclaimed and published through 
Nineveh, by the decree of the king and his nobles, 
saying let neither man nor beast, herd nor flock, taste 
anything; let them not feed nor drink water; but let 
man and beast be covered with sackcloth and cry 
mightily unto God; yea, let them turn every one from 
his evil way, and from the violence that is in their 
hands." The great city turned from the revelry and 
feasting to lamentation and mourning; vices were 
abandoned, and the people humbled themselves into 
the dust. The inhabitants believed that a great calamity 
was thus averted, as the city was not overthrown until 
more than a century later. 

With the accession of Tiglath-Pileser II, B. C. 
745, began the supremacy of the Lower Assyrian Em- 
pire. It appears that he was a usurper, and of humble 
origin, but through his vigor and power, he regained 
all that his predecessors had lost, once more making 
Assyria the master of Asia from the Persian Gulf to 
the Mediterranean. He overran the northern terri- 
tory of Israel, and carried the inhabitants of the terri- 
tory west of Jordan into captivity. Soon after Judah 
was made tributary to him. He was succeeded B. C. 
727 by Shalmaneser IV. At this time Hoshea, King 
of Israel, revolted, but was soon subjugated. A few 
years later Hoshea again revolted and allied himself 
with Egypt, which was then under the rule of the 
Ethiopian king, Sabaco. 

Shalmaneser invaded Palestine and divided his 
forces so that he could attack at the same time Phoen- 



94 Ancient Empires. 

icia and Israel. He laid siege to both Tyre and 
Samaria. At the end of two years he took Samaria, 
but his attack upon Tyre was unsuccessful, his fleet 
being destroyed by the Tyrians. During his absence 
on this expedition Sargon raised a rebellion in Assyria 
and seized the throne, thus bringing Shalmaneser's 
reign to an end, B. C. 721. Sargon proved himself to 
be one of the greatest of Assyrian monarchs. He 
crushed out all opposition in his own country and over- 
threw all the revolting tribes that had been subject to 
Assyrian dominion. He destroyed the city of Samaria, 
depopulated the country, and transported the Israel- 
ites to Media. Egypt was then the only great power 
remaining unsubdued by Assyria. Sargon at once 
began war, and the two armies met at Raphia, south 
of Gaza. Although the Egyptians were aided by the 
Philistians, they were decisively defeated, and Sargon 
thus became master of Philistia and the Delta. The 
Egyptian king was confined to Upper Egypt, and not 
long afterward became tributary to Sargon. Even 
the Ethiopian king of Meroe sent in his submission 
to the conqueror. 

Sargon then made himself master of Babylonia and 
Chaldsea. He then subjugated the Northern tribes 
and overran a part of Susiania. 

With the submission of Cypress, B. C. 709, Sargon 
became master of the ancient world. 

Four years later Sargon died, and Sennacherib, his 
son, the most famous of all the Assyrian monarchs, 
came to the throne. At his accession Babylon and 
several other of the tributary provinces revolted, but 



The Assyrians. 95 

the army of Sennacherib soon compelled complete sub- 
mission. 

At the opening of the seventh century, B. C, there 
occurred to the army of Sennacherib one of the most 
remarkable disasters recorded in the chronicles of 
ancient times. Hezekiah, King of Judah, undaunted 
by the severe defeat inflicted upon him because of the 
revolt at the beginning of Sennecherib's reign, entered 
into an alliance with Egypt, and threw off the yoke of 
Assyria. Sennacherib at once marched from Nineveh 
into Palestine with a powerful army, resolved to stamp 
out the recurring influences of rebellion. Knowing 
that Judah was the principal foe, he marched to the 
frontier, intending to punish the Egyptians before 
passing on to Judah. The principal fortresses at the 
extreme edge of Palestine were taken and demolished. 
Finding that Hezekiah was still defiant, he sent a de- 
tachment under Rabshakeh to demand the surrender of 
Jerusalem. He accompanied his demand with a mes- 
sage grossly insulting the God of Israel. Hezekiah 
refused the demand of the Assyrians, and they 
returned to Sennacherib. The Assyrian king then 
sent another demand to Hezekiah, accompanying it 
with a letter in which he said that the God in whom 
the King of Judah trusted was not able to deliver him 
from the wrath of the Assyrians. According to the 
Scripture story, Hezekiah took the letter into the 
temple, spread it out before the Lord, and implored 
Divine help against Sennacherib. At this the prophet 
Isaiah was commanded to declare to Hezekiah that 
Jerusalem should not be molested, and that the Assyr- 



96 Ancient Empires. 

ians would at once return to their own country. On 
receiving the defiant answer to his second letter Sen- 
nacherib marched toward Pelusium, on the Egyptian 
frontier, to meet the Egyptian army under Sethos. On 
the night following the prayer of Hezekiah the Angel 
of Death is said to have passed over the camp of the 
Assyrians, and that one hundred and eighty-five thou- 
sand men died in their sleep. Horrified at this dread- 
ful calamity, Sennacherib abandoned his camp and 
began a hurried retreat to Nineveh. The triumphant 
campaign in the East was abandoned, and during the 
rest of this reign the Assyrians did not again molest 
Palestine. 

Numerous campaigns were conducted by Senna- 
cherib into other rebellious provinces, the greatest of 
which was against Susiania. Sennacherib invaded 
that country, destroyed thirty-four large cities, and 
captured Vadaca, the second city of the kingdom. He 
returned to Nineveh loaded with spoils and spent most 
of the rest of his reign in subduing insurrections nearer 
at home. 

About B. C. 683, he conducted an expedition against 
Cilicia, in which the Assyrians encountered the Greeks 
for the first time, and defeated them. This victory was 
signalized by the erection of a new city, modeled after 
Babylon, to which he gave the name Tarsus. Subse- 
quently it became noted as the birthplace of the apostle 
Paul. 

Sennacherib was a great builder and a patron of the 
useful arts and industries. His reign was brought to 
a close B. C. 681 by his death at the hands of his two 



The Assyrians. 97 

elder sons, who were in turn overthrown by Essar- 
haddon, his youngest son. 

This king was as warhke as his predecessors, but 
not so wise and successful. However, one of his 
campaigns is specially noteworthy. This was an ex- 
pedition into Arabia. He crossed the desert with a 
large army, plundered many towns and returned with 
considerable booty safely to his own country. Essar- 
haddon has the distinction of being the only monarch 
who ever ventured to conduct in person an expedition 
into Arabia, it having been penetrated by a foreign 
force only three times in the history of the world. 

The most important event of his reign was the com- 
plete conquest of Egypt, B. C. 670. He captured 
Memphis, and proceeding south took Thebes. He 
divided Egypt into twenty petty states, over each of 
which he placed a king, but they were made subordin- 
ate, to a certain extent, to the prince, who reigned at 
Memphis. This prince was Nechoh, father of Psam- 
metichus, and a native Egyptian. It was during this 
reign that occurred the revolt of Manasseh, King of 
Judah. The Jewish king was captured and taken in 
chains to Babylon, but was afterwards released and 
restored to his throne as a vassal. 

About B. C. 667 Essar-haddon died, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Asshur-Bani-Pal. This king was 
devoted to the arts and to music. He established a 
royal library at Nineveh, and is esteemed as one of 
Assyria's greatest kings. During his reign Assyrian 
supremacy was reasserted over the territory of its 
former conquests. In the old age of Asshur-Bani-Pal, 



98 Ancient Empires. 

Cyaxares, the Median king, invaded Assyria, and 
closely invested Nineveh. His siege would doubtless 
have been successful, but he was compelled to return 
to his own country in great haste because of an in- 
vasion of Media by the Scythian hordes of Northern 
Asia. This wild and barbarous people came from the 
Caucasus and overran Media. They then spread west- 
ward over Asia toward the Mediterranean. Assyria, 
weakened by the revolt of Egypt, under Psammetichus, 
was quickly overrun by the Scythians, who passed 
over into Syria, where they were checked by Psam- 
metichus, then laying siege to Ashdod in Palestine. 
He bribed this wild overflow of barbarians to turn 
aside and spare Egypt. They disappeared into other 
countries, in which they are supposed to have been 
absorbed by taking service as soldiers in the armies 
of the kingdoms which they entered. It is supposed 
that Asshur-Bani-Pal died during this invasion, about 
B. C. 626. 

The vast numbers of the Scythians made resistance 
hopeless, and Assyria fell prostrate under their rava- 
ges. Most of the old Assyrian cities were taken, the 
treasures carried away, and the palaces destroyed. 
The barbarians pursued a policy of extermination ; 
and, as Rawlinson says, "Assyria, when the Scythians 
quitted her, was but the shadow of her former self; 
weak and exhausted, she seemed to invite a permanent 
conqueror. If her limits had not much shrunk, if the 
provinces still acknowledged her authority, it was from 
habit rather than from fear, or because they, too, had 
suffered greatly from the Northern barbarians." 



t3 



The Assyrians. 99 

To complete the fall of Assyria, the Medes and 
Susianians formed an alliance and invaded the country 
from the east and south. The son of Asshur-Bani-Pal, 
known to the Greeks as Saracus, in order to meet this 
double force, divided his army into two parts. He led 
in person the division that was to attack the Medes, 
and sent Nabopolassar, his ablest general, with the 
other division, to drive back the Susianians. Seeing his 
opportunity, Nabopolassar deserted the Assyrian cause 
and came to terms with his enemy. By this means he 
secured the throne of Babylon for himself and received 
the daughter of Cyaxares as a bride for his oldest son, 
Nebuchadnezzar. He then united his forces with 
Cyazares, and both armies marched on to Nineveh. 
Saracus, seeing the city about to be captured, burned 
himself in his palace, and Nineveh was taken. The 
conquerors divided Assyria between them, B. C. 625. 

The independent kingdom of Assyria had lasted 
about one thousand years, and then fell, not from in- 
herent weakness, or the luxurious decay that had over- 
thrown other countries, but through the invasion of a 
strong nation at a time when the country had been 
devastated by an irresistible horde of Northern bar- 
barians. 



THE BABYLONIANS. 

The territorial area of Babylonia was almost identir 
cal with the ancient kingdom of Chaldaea, and it con- 
tained about 27,000 square miles. East of the Tigris 
lay Cissia or Susiania, known to the Jews as Elam. 
Media and Assyria were north, and the great Arabian 
desert south. 

After the absorption of Chaldgea into the Assyrian 
monarchy by Tiglathi-Nin I., B. C. 1300, many at- 
tempts were made by the Chaldaeans to restore their 
monarch, but in vain. Nabonassar made the first suc- 
cessful revolt, B. C. 747, and established the inde- 
pendent monarchy of Babylonia. In order to blot out 
the record of his country's slavery, he destroyed all 
the chronicles of the Assyrian viceroys. One of his 
successors, Merodach-Baladan, B. C. 713, was on such 
terms of intimacy with the Jews that he sent an em- 
bassy to Hezekiah, King of Judah, congratulating him 
on recovering from a dangerous illness. 

Babylon was conquered, B. C. 709, by Sargon, who 
once more reduced it to an Assyrian province. The 
defeated king escaped from captivity at the end of a 
year and regained his throne, but six months later was 
overthrown by Sennacherib. After several unsuccess- 
ful revolts Essar-haddon so completely subjugated the 
Babylonians that he made himself king of Babylon 
and erected there a palace, which he made the seat of 
his court alternately with that at Nineveh. 



. The Babylonians. loi 

Saracus, the last Assyrian king, in the year B. C. 
625, placed Nabopolassar in command of the Babylon- 
ian province, with orders to turn back the invading 
Susianians, but the people at Babylon were already 
rising in rebellion when Nabopolassar reached the 
city, and he took advantage of the popular movement 
to ruin his master and advance his own interests. 
Accordingly, he made an alliance with Cyaxares, who 
was invading Assyria from Media, and arranged a 
marriage between his son Nebuchadnezzar and the 
daughter of Cyaxares, which secured to Nabopolassar 
the crown of Babylonia. With the kings of Baylon 
and Media thus united in interest, Babylon became 
the head of a powerful empire. 

The first exertions of Nabopolassar was for the con- 
solidation of his government and the prosperity of his 
people. Between the years B. C. 615 and B. C. 610, 
Lydia and Media were at war. Most of this time the 
Assyrians assisted the Medians. It was at a battle in 
this war when the eclipse of the sun took place which 
so frightened the Medians, Babylonians and Lydians, 
that a peace was brought about which gave an unin- 
terrupted tranquillity to Western Asia for half a 
century. 

In B. C. 608, the dominions of Babylon were invaded 
by the Egyptians under Nechoh, who had succeeded to 
the vigorous policy and strong resources of his father, 
Psammetichus. The Egyptian army overran all the 
country between Egypt and the Euphrates. Josiah, 
King of Judah, was defeated by Megiddo — Jerusalem 
was taken, and Jehoiakim was placed upon the throne 



102 Ancient Empires. 

of Judah. For three years Nechoh was left to enjoy 
his conquest in peace. However, in B. C. 605, Nabopo- 
lassar assembled a great army and placed it under the 
command of his son, Nebuchadnezzar. The Egyptian 
army was attacked near Carchemish, and defeated. 
Following up this victory, Nebuchadnezzar pursued 
the flying Egyptians to the border of Egypt and re- 
covered all the lost territory. Jehoiakim, King of 
Judah, was allowed to remain on his throne by offering 
abject submission. 

Nebuchadnezzar intended to take his victorious 
army on to Egypt, but upon reaching the frontier he 
received news of the death of his father. Making 
peace with Nechoh, Nebuchadnezzar returned to 
Babylon and mounted the throne, B. C. 604, The 
following four years were spent in improving Baby- 
lon, pacifying the rebellious provinces, and in consoli- 
dating his dominions. Egypt, anxious to injure the 
power of the Babylonian king, encouraged revolts in 
Phoenicia and Judah. In B. C. 598 Nebuchadnezzar 
led an allied Babylonian and Median army into 
Phoenicia and laid siege to Tyre. The rebellious 
Jehoiakim, King of Judah, was deposed, and put to 
death. Jehoiachim was then made King of Judah, 
but was soon deposed and replaced by Zedekiah. The 
Jews struggled heroically against their enemy, but 
were finally crushed by the capture of Jerusalem, the 
destruction of their temple and city, and the transporta- 
tion of their entire nation into Babylonia. The 
Egyptian king had come to the assistance of the Jews 
and attempted to raise the siege of Jerusalem, but 



The Babyl-ouiaDS. i03 

Nebuchadnezzar was not able to turn his forces in 
punishment against the Egyptians until he captured 
Tyre, B. C. 585, after a siege of 13 years. The task 
of punishing the Egyptians for their assistance to the 
Jews was begun by Nebuchadnezzar in B. C. 581. The 
war seems not to have been prosecuted with much 
vigor in this campaign, but eleven years later the 
Babylonians invaded Egypt, conquered it, and placed 
a new king, named Amasis, on the throne as a vassal. 

The most illustrious period of Babylonian history 
was during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who was a 
m.an of great political wisdom and determination of 
character. His country, during his reign, was covered 
with useful works, and he made Babylon the most 
magnificent city in Asia. His queen, Amyitis, was a 
native of Media, and to gratify her longing for the 
mountains of her native land, the celebrated hanging 
gardens of Babylon were built. These hanging 
gardens were numbered among the Seven Wonders of 
the World. A series of terraces were built on arches 
rising above the walls of the city. Earth was laid on 
this structure, in which were planted trees, shrubbery 
and flowering plants. Hydraulic engines were con- 
structed to raise water to the top for the nourish- 
ment of the plants and to make fountains and cas- 
cades. A wall of baked bricks 33 ft. high and 85 ft. 
thick surrounded this city, making a circuit of forty- 
one miles. Owing to the advantageous position of 
Babylon, half way between the Indus and the Medi- 
terranean, it became the leading commercial city of 
the East. Merchants flocked to its markets from all 



104 Ancient Empires. 

the known countries of the world. The wealth and 
prosperity of Babylon spread to the neighboring 
towns, and there was no part of the kingdom to which 
the personal influence of Nebuchadnezzar did not 
extend. This king was not only one of the most 
remarkable personages of ancient history, but he was 
also one of the most striking figures mentioned in 
the Scriptures, in which is to be seen the clearest 
view of his character. The Book of Daniel gives an 
especially strong description of the man and his court. 
When well advanced in years he gave up most of 
his time to the luxuries of his magnificent palaces 
and allowed the corruption that pressages the inevit- 
able fall of a nation to creep into his country. It 
was at this time that he dreamed a remarkable dream 
which greatly disturbed him. 

It was the vision of a tree that reached into heaven, 
bearing leaves and fruit for the blessing of all nations. 
Suddenly a watcher appeared and cried, "Hew it 
down and cut off its branches ; nevertheless, leave 
the stump of its roots in the earth, even with a band 
of iron and brass in the tender grass of the field, and 
let it be wet with the dew of heaven, but let his 
portion be with the beasts." All the soothsayers and 
astrologers within his dominions were called to the king 
and asked for an interpretation of the strange vision, 
but all failed to satisfy the distressed king, until 
Daniel, the Hebrew, came. Daniel declared that the 
monarch was himself the tree, which should be hewn 
down and his branches cut away. The prophet de- 
clared that the kiqg should be smitten and driven 



The Babylonians. 105 

forth to live with wild beasts until his pride should 
be humbled. In fulfilment of this prophecy, Nebu- 
chadnezzar was stricken with madness, imagining 
himself a beast, and went forth into the fields on 
all-fours. He slept in the open fields and lived on 
herbs for seven years, when his reason suddenly re- 
turned and he was allowed a brief interval of peace 
before his death. 

The afflictions of this great king so preyed upon 
the mind of his son, Evil-Merodach, who succeeded 
to the throne B. C. 557, that he resolved to be more 
lenient to the Hebrews, who were then captives in 
Babylon. Jehoiachim had been in a Babylonian pris- 
on for thirty-five years. This aged Israelitish king 
was released and advanced to high honor in the coun- 
cils of the Babylonian king. The conditions of other 
Jewish captives was then made more tolerable than 
that of their most favored fellow-exiles. Important 
measures were being taken for the benefit of the cap- 
tive Jews when an insurrection broke out and Evil- 
Merodach was killed. The leader of the revolt was 
a son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar. He was not only 
an enemy of the Jews, but despised the pacific reign 
of Evil-Merodach. Intrigue, conspiracy and treach- 
ery now held full sway in Babylon, and great events 
were about to take place. A message came from 
Sargos, the capital of Lydia, of the most urgent 
importance. That country, which had been for so 
long a time on terms of intimacy with Babylon, was 
now threatened by a conqueror from Persia. Nabo- 
nadius, then king of Babylon, decided that for the 



106 Ancient Empires. 

safety of his own kingdom it was necessary to form 
an alliance with Lydia to stop the advance of Cyrus. 
In order to provide against an invasion of the Per- 
sians, which Nabonadius foresaw to be inevitable, 
an array of important walls and barricades were 
erected about Babylon, indicating that the king did 
not believe his army able to meet the Persians in open 
battle. Croesus, king of Lydia, was overthrown, and 
in a few years Babylon found the Persian army at 
its walls. 

Fourteen years had elapsed since the alliance with 
the Lydians had been made as the actual invasion 
of Babylonia did not begin until B. C. 539. Mid- 
way between Ecbatana and Babylon the march of 
the Persian army was interrupted by an incident char- 
acteristic of that age. One of the horses which drew 
the Chariot of the Sun was drowned in the river, 
Gyndes. This insult to the Persian Deity could not 
be passed by without adequate punishment. There- 
fore the Persian king ordered a halt and set his army 
to work destroying the river. Three hundred and 
sixty channels leading into the desert were exca- 
vated and the whole of the summer was employed 
in breaking up the course of the river. The fol- 
lowing spring the army moved on to its task of over- 
throwing the Babylonian empire. No opposition was 
given until he came to Babylon, when he met the 
army of Nabonadius and defeated it. Part of the 
Babylonian army shut itself up within the city, but 
the king, with the remainder, withdrew into Bor- 
sippa, hoping to lead Cyrus away from Babylon.- 



The Babylonians. 107 

During this time Belshazzar, son of the king, was in 
command of the forces within the city. So complete- 
ly were the people given up to their luxuries and 
pleasures and so much confidence did they have in 
their protecting walls, that they gave little thought 
to the enemy without. Cyrus saw that he could make 
no breach in the walls, and he accomplished the over- 
throw of the city by strategy. Having been so suc- 
cessful in destroying the river Gyndes, he formed 
the purpose of diverting the course of the Euphrates. 
Immense canals were cut some distance from the 
city, and everything was ready for turning the course 
of the water, when Cyrus learned that a great an- 
nual feast was to be celebrated in the city. When 
the night of revelry, wild abandonment and licentious 
debauchery came, the Persians opened the sluices into 
their canals above the city and the water under the 
brazen gates of Babylon melted away. The invaders 
were ready, and when the water disappeared from 
the bed of the stream, they passed silently into the 
city. A monstrous massacre ensued. The drunken 
Babylonians could offer no resistance. Belshazzar 
and his thousand nobles were slain at their banquet 
and Babylon was fallen. Seeing that further resis- 
tance was useless, Nabonadius came from Borsippa 
and surrendered on honorable terms to Cyrus, who 
treated him and his army with great consideration. 
The Babylonian had now become part of the greater 
empire of Persia. 



THE MEDES. 

The Medes were of Aryan descent, differing but 
little in race, language and institutions from their 
Southern neighbors, the Persians. They were an im- 
portant tribe in early times, as appears from the Book 
of Genesis, wherein they are mentioned under the 
name of Madai. Berosus says that they furnished 
a dynasty to Babylon previous to B. C. 2000. Media 
and Andromeda, two eponyms for the Medes, are 
m.entioned in two Greek legends referring to a period 
before the age of Homer, at least B. C. 1000. The 
history of the Medes as a nation begins about B. C. 
850 years. There is an authentic record that Sargon, 
an Assyrian, invaded Media, B. C. 710. An annual 
tribute was required of the Medes, consisting of a 
certain number of horses for the Assyrian stables. 
Sennacherib and his son, Essar-haddon, both exacted 
tribute from the Medians. 

Sargon, of Assyria, established fortified posts in 
Media and settled many of his Israelite captives in 
Median cities. It was not until B. C. 632 that the 
rising power of the Medes exerted special influence 
in the history of nations. At that time Cyaxares 
conducted an expedition against Nineveh. Cyaxares 
has been generally regarded as the founder of the 
Median empire. When Cyaxares had reigned thirty- 
four years, the Medes came suddenly through the 
passes of the Zagros mountains and overran the sur- 

(108) 



The Medes. loo 

rounding plains of Assyria. The Assyrian king sent 
an army to repel the invaders, which was done with 
great slaughter, B. C. 634. This defeat taught the 
Median king a valuable lesson and no further attempt 
was made to invade Assyria until the Median army 
v/as adequately prepared and disciplined for the task. 
Cyaxares then renewed the war and defeated the As- 
syrian army sent against him by Asshur-Bani-Pal. He 
pursued the retreating troops to the walls of Nine- 
veh, and the city was about to surrender to him, 
when he was recalled to his own country by the Scy- 
thian inundation, which swept over both Media and 
Assyria with terrible ruin and devastation. The 
Scyths attacked the army of Cyaxares as it returned 
from the siege of Nineveh, and notwithstanding the 
heroic struggle that followed, the great hosts of Scy- 
thians overwhelmed them and turned the Median 
army into a mass of fugitives flying for their lives. 
As the inundation of Scythians subsided, by the 
dispersion of large numbers over the Western coun- 
try, the Medes invited the Scythian chiefs to a grand 
banquet, where these barbarians were made helpless- 
ly intoxicated and were then remorselessly massacred. 
The Medes flew to arms and attacked their Scythian 
oppressors with irresistible fury. It is . not believed 
that the struggle that followed was of short dura- 
tion, but the Scyths were finally expelled from Media. 
Many romantic legends are extant concerning this 
period and most of the history concerning it is known 
to be fabulous. 

Having freed his country from its barbarous in- 



110 Ancient Empires. 

vaders, Cyaxares devoted himself to the task of re- 
storing his kingdom to prosperity and power. In 
a few years he found himself in a position to renew 
his designs upon Assyria, that country having been 
fatally weakened by the Scythian overflow. In prep- 
aration for a successful invasion of Assyria, he in- 
cited the Susianians and Chaldseans to throw off the 
Assyrian yoke and enter into an alliance with him. 
This was successful and it was agreed that the Su- 
sianians should invade Assyria from the South while 
the Median army entered from the East. Saracus, 
the Assyrian king, formed a plan to attack the Medes 
with an army led by himself, while Nebopolassar, 
his principal general, was to go to Babylon and drive 
back the Susianians. Nebopolassar betrayed his sov- 
ereign and sent an embassy to Cyaxares offering to 
become an ally of the Medes, provided he was, him- 
self, elevated to the throne of Babylon and the daugh- 
ter of Cyaxares, named Amyitis, was made the wife 
of his son, Nebuchadnezzar. This offer was accept- 
ed and the combined armies laid siege to Nineveh, 
which was taken and destroyed. Saracus perished 
in his palace on a funeral pile which he lighted with 
his own hand. 

The conquerors divided the conquered territory be- 
tween them, and out of the ashes of the Assyrian 
empire raised the two great kingdoms of Babylon 
and Media. 

Herodotus states that Cyaxares continued his con- 
quests until he had subdued to himself all Asia above 
the Halys river. 



The Medes. lu 

The Median empire advanced westward until Cap- 
adocia was absorbed, thus bringing the Medes into 
collision with Lydia. A confederacy was formed by 
Lydia to stop the advance of the Medes westward. 
Cyaxares secured the assistance of Nabopolassar of 
Babylon against the Lydians, and with a large allied 
army, invaded Asia Minor. The war that followed 
for six years was brought . to an end by an eclipse 
of the sun, which so filled the contending armies 
with superstitious fear that they concluded a peace 
which bound the Lydians, Medians and Babylonians 
to a lasting friendship. 

Cyaxares, having come to an advanced age, died 
in the height of his country's greatness. By his con- 
quests and abilities he furnished his people the ma- 
terials for a powerful empire, but his nation lacked 
the element of stability. 

He was succeeded by his son, Astyages, who was 
less ambitious and able than his father. The reign 
of Astyages was long, but uneventful. He died 
childless and this circumstance probably had much to 
do with the final overthrow of Media, since it en- 
gendered petty disputes, which led to such animosity 
and intrigue that the national power was dissipated. 

During the reign of Cyaxares, Magism became the 
court religion. Astyages encouraged this priestly 
caste, which in time became a source of great dis- 
turbance to the State. From the conflict of oppos- 
ing religions, little is to be recorded of Median his- 
tory until the appearance of the conquering Cyrus. 
T)uring the reign of Astyages, this Persian prince 



112 Ancient Empires. 

had been a resident at the Median court. He was 
skilled in the doctrines of Zoroaster and so despised 
the hollow mockeries of Magism. Therefore, in the 
licentious court of Astyages, he found abundant food 
for rebellious thoughts. His position there was that 
of a hostage and he was jealously watched and 
guarded. At last he applied to Astyages for leave 
to return to Persia, claiming that his father, the 
Persian king, being old and feeble, required the care 
of his son and heir. Permission was at first given, 
but while Cyrus was on the way home, he was over- 
taken and brought back by order of the king. That 
night, however, he made his captors drunk, and while 
they were in that condition, he escaped. A body of 
soldiers was sent to recapture him, but on swift horses, 
he had succeeded in reaching the borders of Persia, 
where the people rallied around him, and when the 
soldiers of Astyages arrived, they found themselves 
opposed by a force equal to their own. A sharp 
conflict ensued but Cyrus defeated his pursuers and 
escaped to his father's court. The Median king at 
once summoned his generals and ordered an invasion 
of Persia. Tradition says that a Median army was 
mustered numbering three thousand war chariots, 
two hundred thousand horsemen, and a million of 
infantry. Astyages, himself, led this host into Persia. 
Cyrus could get together, by the utmost exertions, 
only one hundred chariots of war, fifty thousand 
horsemen, and two hundred thousand infantry. With 
this comparatively small force he marched to the 
frontier of his dominions and awaited the Assyrian 



The Medes. 113 

advance. The battle that followed was a desperate 
hand to hand conflict lasting two days. The bravery 
of the Persians and the superior generalship of their 
leader were over-matched by the numbers of the Me- 
dians and the forces of Cyrus were thrown into head- 
long flight. During this battle Cambyses, father of 
Cyrus, was slain, and the young prince was recognized 
as king. Astyages marched on to the Persian capi- 
tal. Cyrus rallied his forces together again and se- 
lected his own ground for battle. A two days' con- 
flict followed, more terrific than the first. The Medes, 
through their overwhelming numbers, were able to 
close in on two sides of the Persian army. The Per- 
sians were thus driven to the summit of the hills, 
where their wives and children had been placed, as 
being more secure there than in the city. When the 
defeated Persians came pouring up the hillsides the 
terrified women and children began to scream and 
cry with such reproaches against the weakness of the 
soldiers that the Persians were aroused to a desper- 
ation of valor. They suddenly rallied and flung them- 
selves with reckless courage upon the pursuing Medes. 
Before this unexpected onset sixty thousand Medes 
were killed. The Medes ceased their attack and pre- 
pared more carefully for a final blow. It was here 
that the martial genius of Cyrus shone forth in its 
brightest splendor. He quickly reorganized his men 
and fell so suddenly upon the unsuspecting Medes 
that the entire army was thrown into a panic and 
rout, in which the victorious Persians succeeded in 
almost destroying the entire Median army. 



114 Ancient Empires. 

The Persian chiefs and generals gathered around 
Cyrus on the victorious battlefield ; and, with warlike 
ardor and enthusiasm, proclaimed him not only king 
of Persia, but also king of Media. 

Astyages escaped and fled to his capital, Ecbatana. 
Just before reaching the city he was captured by 
some pursuing Persians who took him to Cyrus. 
Astyages being childless there was no legitimate heir 
to the throne and the Medes readily accepted Cyrus 
as their king. Ecbatana surrendered in the year B. 
C. 558. Thus the Median empire came to an end. 



THE PERSIANS. 

When Cambyses came to the throne of Persia that 
nation consisted of twelve tribes inhabiting a single 
province. Cambyses, the father of Cyrus, belonged 
to the Pasargadse, which was the most influential 
of the tribes. Asia at that time contained three 
great ruling powers : Babylon, Media and Lydia. 
Crcesus, king of Lydia, held dominion over all Asia 
west of the river Halys, now known as Kizil Irneak, 
excepting Lycia and Cilicia. Babylon was declining 
under the successors of Nebuchadnezzar and Lydia 
was enervated under the luxury and wealth of its 
court, while the twelve tribes of Persia were grow- 
ing rapidly more vigorous and strong. 

Cambyses was a Persian noble of the chief tribe, 
when he married Mandane, daughter of Astyages, 
king of Media. In this way was effected a union of 
the Persian and Median kingdoms, with himself as 
chief or king. Trouble arising with the powerful 
tribes of Armenia, Cyrus, son of Cambyses and Man- 
dane, was placed at the head of an expedition for 
their suppression. His immediate and brilliant vic- 
tories aroused the jealousy of the neighboring sover- 
eigns. Fearing the great power which Cambyses 
had attained by the union of Media and Persia, a 
coalition was formed by the kings of Babylon, Egypt 
and Lydia. A fierce battle was fought between the 
Persians and the allied armies at Thymbra, a city 

(115) 



116 Ancient Empires. 

of Lydia, in which Cyrus at the head of the army com- 
pletely overthrew his opponents. The way thus be- 
ing opened to the brilliant young warrior, he soon 
made himself master of Sardis, the capital of Lydia, 
seizing the vast riches of Croesus, whom he took 
prisoner, completely subjugating the kingdom and 
obliging the people to adopt the Persian customs and 
manners. 

The warlike Cyrus continued in his conquests until 
he had reduced all Asia Minor. Then he carried 
the war into the Babylonian Empire and defeated the 
army of Belshazzar so completely that the Babylon- 
ian king shut himself up in his capital. The young 
conqueror then planted his army around the walls of 
the city. Being kept well informed of what passed 
within, he ordered his men on a certain night when 
a great feast was taking place within the doomed 
capital, to open the waterways which the Babylon- 
ians used to draw off the overflows from the river. 
In this manner the channel of the Euphrates was 
drained and the Persian soldiers were enabled to walk 
under the great brass gates which hung between the 
walls and over the channel of the river. Under cover 
of the confusion and disorder occasioned by the great 
feast given by Belshazzar to his nobles, the Persian 
troops passed along the bed of the channel and were 
in the heart of the city before they were discovered. 
The effeminate monarch was awakened from his pleas- 
ing dream of security in the midst of his festivities, 
by a mysterious appearance on the wall near his 
throne. A hand appeared which wrote in glowing 



The Persians. 117 

letters, a prophecy of divine vengeance: "Mene, 
Mene, Tekel, Upharsin." The frightened king called 
for the priests of Baal, but none of them could in- 
terpret the mysterious warning. It was then that 
Daniel, fearless in his youthful sanctity, came for- 
ward and read the prophecy so soon to be fulfilled: 
"Thou art weighed in the balance and found wanting." 
These words were soon verified, for at that moment 
the dreaded troops of Cyrus were marching along the 
bed of the Euphrates. Almost without resistance the 
corrupt city was taken, and the unworthy monarch 
slain. 

There were so many points of affinity between the 
Jews and the Persians at that time that Cyrus was 
very favorable to them. He permitted them to re- 
turn from their captivity in Babylon to Jerusalem, 
and not only assisted them in rebuilding their temple, 
which had been destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, but 
restored to them the sacred vessels which had been 
carried away at the time of the overthrow of the 
Jews. 

When Cyrus became king at the death of his father, 
his dominion extended from the river Indus to the 
Aegean Sea, and from the Caspian and Euxine Seas 
to Ethiopia and the Sea of Arabia. This renowned 
monarch was one of the most virtuous, wise and pow- 
erful kings of ancient times. For many centuries his 
name was held in almost deified reverence and re- 
membrance among the nations of the earth. The 
manner of his death is not known with any degree 
of certainty. In the age of Strabo his tomb bore 



118 Ancient Empires. 

this Inscription : "O man, I am Cyrus, who founded 
the Persian Empire : envy me not then the little earth 
which covers my remains." The commonly accepted 
tradition is that he was killed while on an expedition 
against the Scythians. 

He was succeeded by his son Cambyses. This king 
was as cruel as his father had been wise and just. 
He extended his dominions by the conquest of Egypt, 
whose king he put to death. Becoming jealous of 
his brother, Smerdis, Cambyses ordered his assassina- 
tion, and while Cambyses was absent on an expedi- 
tion against his enemies, a magian, who called him- 
self Smerdis, pretending to have escaped the intended 
assassination, seized the throne, but the imposition 
was soon discovered and the imposter killed. 

The reigning family becoming extinct upon the 
death of Cambyses, a Persian nobleman named Darius 
Hystaspes was raised to the throne. Babylon, taking 
advantage of the disordered state of the kingdom, re- 
volted, but Darius Hystaspes reconquered the city, 
and then collected a formidable army for the invasion 
of Scythia. 

The Scythians were so called by the early Greeks, 
and the name Scythia given to the entire territory 
north and west of Euxine. However as early as the 
time of the first Ptolemy, this country with the whole 
region from the Baltic Sea to the Caspian, was called 
Sarmatia; while the name Scythia was given to that 
part of Asia beyond the Himalaya Mountains. 

Darius, with the ranks of his Persian troops swelled 
by Asiatic Greeks, passed into Europe beyond the 



The Persians. 119 

Danube, On the banks of this river the Greek allies 
were left to protect the bridge of boats that had 
been made, and were given permission, if the Per- 
sians did not return within three months, to destroy 
the bridge and return to their own country. When 
the Scythians learned that Darius had crossed the 
Danube, they sent away their wives, children and 
flocks into the northern part of their country. Then 
with a heroism as meritorious as any known in his- 
tory, they laid waste the region through which the 
Persians must pass. They consumed the food and 
foliage, and destroyed all the wells. They then 
marched toward their enemy, using every artifice that 
might draw the Persians into ambush. At last a her- 
ald came to Darius from the Scythian prince. He 
brought with him a present, consisting of a bird, a 
mouse, a frog and five arrows. Darius supposed that 
these were tokens of submission, but the messenger 
steadily refused to make any explanation of their 
import. At last one of the Persian officers was en- 
abled to unravel the enigma. "Know this," so the 
import of the message ran, "that unless you can fly 
in the air like birds, or hide in the earth like mice, 
or swim through the water like frogs, you shall in 
no wise be able to escape the arrows of the Scy- 
thians." 

Thus harrassed amid the barren steppes of the 
north and annoyed by the devices of the wily enemy, 
the Persian army became disheartened and the mon- 
arch was compelled to relinquish his unprofitable en- 
terprise and return to the Danube. To cover their 



120 Ancient Empires. 

retreat the Persians left their campfires lighted and 
the Scythians did not discover the absence of their 
enemy until morning. They then dispatched envoys 
to persuade the Greeks to destroy the bridge over 
the Danube. As the Scythians were so much better 
acquainted with the road and mountain passes, they 
arrived at the river before Darius. A momentous 
consultation was now held among the Grecian chiefs, 
m.any of them advising an alliance with the Scythians, 
believing that the destruction of Darius would secure 
their own independence. Although other councils 
prevailed the meditated treachery was made known 
to Darius and embittered him greatly against the 
Greeks. After recrossing the Danube, he left Mega- 
bysus, one of his principal generals, with a division 
of his army to hold the territory and returned with 
the rest of his troops to Sardis. Megabysus em- 
ployed his time in conquering Macedonia and Thrace, 
which he added to the Persian dominions. At this 
time Aristagoras, tyrant or usurper of Miletus, headed 
a revolt of the lonians of Asia. They dispatched 
embassadors to each of the states of Greece, implor- 
ing aid. Cleomenes, king of Sparta, refused any as- 
sistance, but the Athenians, who were incensed at 
Darius for having favorably received Hippias, their 
banished king, willingly entered into an alliance with 
the lonians. In order to arouse enthusiasm among 
the people against Darius, Aristagoras traveling 
through Ionia, persuaded the tyrants to restore free- 
dom to the cities. He set the example himself by 
liberating Miletus. The lonians collected a fleet dur- 



The Persians. 121 

ing the first three years of the war and sailed for 
Ephesus. Leaving their ships at this place, they 
marched to Sardis, which they captured and burned. 
Artaphernes, the cruel Persian governor, was com- 
pelled to take refuge in the citadel from which he 
was unable to escape. The lonians then marched 
toward Ephesus, but the combined Persian and Lydian 
armies overtook them on the way and defeated them 
with great slaughter. At this misfortune the Athen- 
ians returned to their ships and refused to assist any 
further in the war. Artaphernes now being able safe- 
ly to leave the citadel, collected a large force and 
concentrated his attack upon Miletus, which was the 
ir.ost important city of the Ionian confederacy. With 
a fleet of three hundred and fifty-three vessels the 
lonians determined to attack the superior Persian fleet 
lying near the besieged city. The Greeks were known 
to be very skillful in the management of their boats, 
and the Persian commander avoided an engagement 
until he was able to corrupt the commanders of the 
different squadrons composing the Ionian fleet. He 
promised a great indemnity to those countries whose 
vessels would be the first to forsake the Ionian cause. 
On the other hand he threatened utter destruction 
to all those whose fleets remained true to the Asiatic 
Greeks. 

The sea fight began with all the allies in line, but 
early in the engagement the Samians gave the signal 
for flight, and forty-nine ships out of their squad- 
ron of sixty fled from the battle. This treachery was 
heartily disapproved by the Samian people and they 



122 Ancient Empires. 

ordered the names of the eleven captains who had 
disobeyed the treacherous command to be honorably 
recorded on a pillar erected in their capital. The Per- 
sians were enabled to overwhelm their antagonists by 
a force of numbers, and soon after Miletus was taken 
by assault. The inhabitants were indiscriminately 
put to the sword, the dwellings and temples were 
burned and the whole country was devastated to the 
shores of the Hellespont. Artaphernes was then re- 
called and his place was given to Mardonius, a young 
nobleman who was a son-in-law of Darius. A large 
army and a powerful fleet was given to him and he 
was directed to carry the war into Greece. His army 
crossed the Hellespont and marched into Macedonia 
and Thrace; but his fleet in passing Mt. Athos was 
struck by a storm which sunk three hundred ships 
and drowned twenty thousand men. At this disaster, 
the season being far advanced, Mardonius concluded 
to abandon the enterprise and return to Asia. Greece 
was at this time in such a weak condition as to be 
an easy prey to the conquering army. It consisted 
of a number of small Independent states, without mu- 
tual relations or obligations. Petty feuds and hos- 
tilities were so rife that the people hated one another 
more than they did their foreign enemies. Sparta and 
Athens having become pre-eminent over the other 
states, were bitterly jealous of each other; but a sense 
of their peril on the approach of the Persian army 
allayed their animosity to such an extent that a na- 
tional spirit was brought into existence, and the foun- 
dation was laid which was to make Greece one of 
the conquerors of the world. 



The Persians. 123 

A year after the fruitless invasion by Mardonius, 
Darius sent heralds into Greece demanding earth and 
water as symbols of submission. Some of the weaker 
cities and islands submitted. 

Eretria was destroyed and the course pursued di- 
rectly to Athens. At this time Miltiades, tyrant of 
the Thracian Chersonesus, who had accompanied 
Darius against the Scythians, and afterwards took 
sides with the Asiatic Greeks, was chosen with nine 
others to take charge of the protection of Athens. 
A plan of battle was arranged by him for the supreme 
struggle to take place on the plains of Marathon. 
Although the Persians outnumbered the Greeks ten 
to one, they were disasterously defeated and thus 
driven back in an unbroken rout to Asia. The ob- 
stinate Persian king was still determined to have re- 
venge upon the Athenians, and he therefore at once 
began gigantic preparations for the subjugation of 
the Asiatic Greeks. The whole energies of his em- 
pire were devoted for three years to the organization 
and equipment of an overwhelming force with which 
he was to subdue not only Greece but the whole of 
Europe. Never in the history of the world were 
such stupendous measures taken for the subjugation 
of a distant people. However a sudden revolt of 
the Egyptians distracted the attention of Darius for 
a time, but his energies arose to the emergency. He 
led in person an army into Egypt, but in the midst 
of his victory he died, in the thirty-sixth year of his 
reign, at the age of sixty-three. His unfinished work 
was taken up by Xerxes, his son, and successor to 



124 Ancient Empires. 

the throne. Darius Hystaspes through his achieve- 
ments, may be reckoned as one of the greatest sov- 
ereigns of the ancient world. Artabazanes was the 
eldest son of Darius, but he did not succeed to the 
throne because he was not born in the purple; that 
is to say, he was not the first son to be born after 
Darius came to the throne. 

The first care of Xerxes was to conquer the Egyp- 
tians. There was reason to believe that, if left to 
himself, he would have abandoned the proposed con- 
quest of Europe, but his ambitious advisers persuad- 
ed him that the honor of his country required him to 
subjugate the impudent states of Greece. So the vast 
army moved forward according to the plans of Darius. 
So great were the Grecians esteemed in arms that 
Xerxes spent four years in additional preparation 
for the task before him. 

The Persian king determined to profit by the dis- 
asters of preceding expeditions. He knew he must 
rely upon his army rather than upon his navy, al- 
though the navy was close in general importance to 
the army. The most feasible route for the army was 
around the long coast line of Thrace and Macedonia. 
Along this route were established vast storehouses, 
filled with provisions for the subsistence of his great 
army. In order to avoid the storms that had been 
so disastrous in the past expeditions, he caused a ship 
canal to be made across the isthmus which connected 
Mt. Athos with the main land. The Hellespont was 
again spanned with a bridge of boats. But a storm 
arose and the great bridge built with such cost and 



The Persians. 125 

care was swept away. The inefficiency of the engi- 
neers was punished by their being put to death and 
the sea was properly scourged with a thousand lashes. 
Another bridge was built more than double the strength 
and width of the one just swept away and for seven 
days and nights a compact column of soldiers poured 
across it. It was now the spring of B. C. 481, and 
the march was begun with forty-nine nations moving 
together through the borders of Greece. The army 
numbered one million, eight hundred thousand men, 
each contingent of this motley array being arranged 
and equipped after the fashion of its native country. 
In three great divisions the army moved on without 
molestation until they reached the Pass' of Ther- 
mopylae. Here the Greeks had collected a small de- 
tachment under Leonidas, king of Sparta. The pass 
was held until a traitor revealed a mountain pass over 
which the Persians succeeded in getting into the rear 
of the Spartans. Leonidas finding himself thus be- 
trayed, resolved to show the Persians what manner 
of men they had come to subjugate. Sending away 
all but three hundred of his most devoted followers, 
they fell upon the Persian advance and fought until 
the last man was killed. Twenty thousand of the 
most courageous Persians fell in this contest against 
three hundred Spartans, and Xerxes had a lesson con- 
cerning the difficulties of the coming conquest. 

The Persians then poured into central Greece. 
They advanced upon Athens, but found it deserted. 
Acting upon the advice of the Oracle which had been 
religiously consulted, the non-combatants of Athens 



126 Ancient Empires. 

had been sent to a place of safety, while the fight- 
ing men went aboard their fleet. The Persian vessels 
meantime had accompanied the army along the coast. 
In three successive sea fights the Greeks had held 
their own against the Persians, although greatly in- 
ferior in numbers. At the destruction of Athens the 
Athenian fleet took a position at Salamis between the 
island and the shore. In the fight that followed five 
hundred Persian ships were sunk and the sea for 
miles around was covered with broken galleys. 
Xerxes witnessed the battle and was so disheartened 
that he returned to Asia. His army was ordered to 
proceed at once to the Hellespont in order to guard 
the bridges. His stores were exhausted, vast num- 
bers of his troops had died from famine; and, to 
complete his misfortunes, a furious storm shattered 
his bridge, and the army was obliged to cross the 
strait in ships. Eight months from the day that the 
magnificent host set out upon the great conquest, 
only a small remnant reached the Lydian capital. 

Mardonius was left behind in Thessaly with two 
hundred and sixty thousand picked men to prevent 
pursuit, and if possible to renew in the following year 
the efifort to conquer Greece, but his army was de- 
feated at Plataea, and the remnant of his fleet de- 
stroyed at Mycale. These disasters annihilated the 
Persian power in Europe. For twelve years no Per- 
sian ship dared to show itself in the Mediterranean 
Sea. 

During the remainder of his reign Xerxes, utterly 
disheartened, attempted no more conquests, but gave 



The Persians. 137 

himself up to the most enervating pleasures and lux- 
uries. He shut himself up in his harem, taking no 
more interest in matters of state, and was murdered 
B. C. 465, by Artabanus, captain of his guard, and 
Aspamitres, his chamberlain. Artabanus caused the 
youngest son of Xerxes, Artaxerxes I, to be placed 
on the throne. Artaxerxes soon discovered that his 
father had been murdered and the guilty ones were 
put to death. 

The reign of Artaxerxes was .disturbed by a revolt 
of Lybia and Egypt, B. C. 460. This revolt had been 
instigated by Athens, which sent a fleet of two hun- 
dred ships to aid the Egyptians. The Persian army 
succeeded in putting down the revolt and the Lybian 
king, Inarus being taken prisoner, was crucified by 
order ' of Artaxerxes. The Greek fleet was defeated 
and destroyed. Athens, smarting under this loss, re- 
newed its exertions with such vigor, B. C. 449, that 
Persia was about to lose both Egypt and Cyprus. Ar- 
taxerxes, finding himself in this strait, consented to 
the humiliating treaty — known as the Peace of Calias. 
Persia was compelled to recognize the independence 
of the Asiatic Greeks, and all the Greek cities from 
the mouth of the Hellespont to Phaselis in Lydia were 
ceded to the Athenian confederacy. Treachery and 
corruption had taken hold of the Persian Empire, and 
it was unable to contend against the revolts and de- 
mands of its numerous provinces, except through the 
means of bribery, which only complicated the diffi- 
culties. In the year B. C. 407, occurred the death 
of Darius Nothus, king of Persia, who was succeed- 



128 Ancient Empires. 

ed by Arsaces, under the title of Artaxerxes II. As 
Arsaces had not been born in the purple his right to 
the throne was disputed. Before the death of Darius 
Nothus the question of succession had been raised by 
Parysatis, the queen, who favored her youngest son, 
Cyrus, reinforcing his claim by the fact that he had 
been born in the purple ; but Darius mentioned Arta- 
xerxes as his successor. On the day of the corona- 
tion Cyrus attempted his brother's life, for which 
he was arrested and condemned to die. His mother 
interceded so strongly for his life that Cyrus was 
pardoned and given a satrapy in Asia Minor. He 
immediately organized a body of Greek mercenaries, 
with the ostensible object of making war on the Pise- 
dians of Western Taurus, but with the real object of 
killing his brother and making himself king of Persia. 
Thirteen thousand Greek soldiers and one hundred 
thousand provincials, were gathered together and 
marched forward from Sardis through Lydia and 
Phrygia. The Greeks discovered the real object of 
Cyrus when they came into Cilicia. At first the 
Greeks refused to proceed farther, but were finally 
won over to the project. Artaxerxes fully aroused to 
his danger, raised a force of nine hundred thousand 
men and met Cyrus on the famous field of Cunaxa. 
In the midst of the battle, Cyrus, burning with re- 
venge, pressed forward to meet his brother Arta- 
xerxes in personal combat, and was killed by a javelin. 
The whole cause of the war now being destroyed, 
the army of Cyrus went to pieces and the Greeks 
were left in the midst of a hostile country many hun- 



The Persians, 139 

dred miles from liome. It was now that the famous 
Retreat of the Ten Thousand began, which Xeno- 
phon, the leader, has so eloquently described. It 
was in the midst of winter the Greeks, were without 
guides and in ignorance of the country. Their way 
home lay across the bleak table lands of Armenia, with a 
powerful Persian army almost surrounding them, but 
such was their valor and discipline that the heroic 
band successfully overcame the obstacles in their way 
and safely returned to their native country. Not- 
withstanding the success of Artaxerxes in crushing 
the revolt of Cyrus, Persia was rapidly declining, and 
the whole empire was at the point of dissolution on 
the death of Artaxerxes, B. C. 359. 

During the reign of Artaxerxes II his mother, 
the infamous Parysatis, was the ruling spirit. Her 
cruel and bloody deeds are scarcely to be paralleled 
in history. As a result irreconcilable hatred arose. 
Executions, murders and suicides were so numerous 
that the reigning race became almost extinct. Ochus, 
the youngest son of Artaxerxes, came to the throne, 
and made an attempt to recover the kingdoms that 
had been lost to his father. Difficulties arose during 
his reign which brought him into contact with Philip, 
who had now become king of Macedon, and the way 
was prepared for the victorious conquests of Alex- 
ander the Great. By the aid of Greek mercenaries 
Ochus was enabled to reconquer Phoenicia and Egypt 
B. C. 346. The promising course of conquest engaged 
in by Ochus was brought to an end by his savage 
cruelties which raised implacable enemies in his court. 



130 Ancient Empires. 

His prime minister, Bagoas, assassinated him B. C. 
338. Bagoas destroyed all the children of Ochus and 
placed a grandson of Darius II, named Codomannus, 
upon the throne, as Darius III. The first act of this 
king was to cause the execution of Bagoas, B. C. 334. 
Darius III was one of the best sovereigns that ever 
sat on the throne of Persia. But his ability was not 
equal to the task of preserving the empire from its 
numerous dangers. Before he came to the throne 
Macedon had begun to rise under King Philip. When 
Alexander became king the inevitable final war be- 
tween the Greeks and Persians was at hand. Darius 
did not properly estimate the powers of the youthful 
Alexander and so allowed him unopposed to cross 
into Asia with the apparently insignificant army of 
thirty-five thousand men, B. C. 334. A battle was 
fought at Granicus in which the Persians were de- 
feated and the whole of Asia Minor fell into the 
hands of the Macedonian conqueror. In the spring 
of B. C. 333, an attempt to stay the progress of 
Alexander was made by the Persians at Issus, but 
a great defeat was the result. The Persian army 
was routed and Darius was compelled to fly for his 
life. His wife, mother and children were taken pris- 
oners by the Greeks, but they were treated with the 
greatest of kindness. 

The victorious Alexander pressed forward and a de- 
cisive battle was fought near Arbela, in the great 
Assyrian plain east of the Tigris. It is said that 
Darius lost here more than one hundred thousand men. 
Darius fled to the city of Arbela, about twenty miles 



The Persians. i3i 

distant, where he was seized by his enraged generals 
and loaded with chains. They attempted to get out 
of the country with their king, but they were so close- 
ly pursued by the Macedonians that escape became 
impossible. Thus hemmed in they turned in their 
rage upon Darius, mortally wounded him and left 
him by the roadside to die. A Macedonian soldier 
discovered the dying king and brought him a cup 
of water. Darius thanked his generous enemy and 
said that his inability to reward the kindness added 
bitterness to his dying hour. He commended the sol- 
dier to the notice of Alexander and then expired. 
Alexander arrived at this moment and was deeply 
moved. He covered the body of the king with his 
own mantle and ordered it to be buried at Pasar- 
gadas with royal honors. He afterward provided for 
the fitting education of the children of Darius and 
the care of his family as their station deserved. The 
battle of Arbela was the close of the Persian Em- 
pire and Alexander soon added the entire country 
to his own dominions. 



THE PARTHIANS. 

The first information that we have concerning 
the Parthians comes from the assistance they gave 
to the pseudo Smerdis, who attempted to secure the 
throne of Persia from Darius Hystaspis. From that 
circumstance, which occurred B. C. 521, we learn 
that Parthia was a satrapy of the Persian empire. 

The history of Parthia is that of a province of 
Persia until the conquest of Alexander the Great. At 
the death of Alexander his empire was divided among 
his generals and Seleucus, surnamed Nicator, was 
made a satrap of Babylonia. This able general, sec- 
ond only to Alexander himself, engaged in a war 
with Antigonus, conquered Babylon, B. C. 312, ex- 
tended his conquest through Central Asia and India, 
and assumed the title of king about the year B. C. 
306. For some reason Seleucus wearied of Babylon 
and so determined to build his capital about forty 
miles to the northeast on the right bank of the Tigris. 
This city which he then founded was named Seleucia, 
and in a short time it was one of the principal cities of 
Asia. For some unknown reason Seleucus again re- 
moved the center of his court from the well chosen 
position in Mesopotamia to the far southwest on the 
borders of his empire. A little later he ceased from 
the conciliating policy which Alexander had inaugu- 
rated among the Asiatics, and began to elevate only 
Greeks to positions of power. This alienated the na- 

(132) 



The Parthians. 133 

tive population and was a source of great weakness 
to him. 

In the year B. C. 280, Seleucus was assassinated 
at Lysimachia. For thirty years his successors con- 
tinued his disastrous policy of alienating the natives 
and of interfering in quarrels of the western Greeks. 

At this time the kingdom of Parthia, which had 
been subordinate for centuries to Persia and the suc- 
cessors of Alexander, began to emerge from its ob- 
scurity through the vigor and prosperity of its in- 
habitants. The administration of Antiochus, the Di- 
vine, a successor of Seleucus, was so effeminate that 
it furnished a favorable opportunity for an aggres- 
sive kingdom to revolt. The opportunity was not 
lost for Theodotus, or Diodotos, a Greek satrap of 
Bactria, accordingly rebelled and set up an independ- 
ent administration, giving himself the title of Basileus. 
Antiochus made no attempt to chastise the rebellious 
government and the fatal precedent of unopposed re- 
bellion was allowed to take its course. The neigh- 
boring satrapies saw what Bactria had been able to 
do and adopted a similar method, Parthia being the 
first to follow the example. The revolution in Par- 
thia had a very different character from that in Bac- 
tria. The Bactrians had simply passed from under 
a Greek ruler at Antioch to a Greek ruler at home, 
but the Parthians were animated by a strong hatred 
against the whole Greek dominion. The origin of 
the Parthian empire is involved in many contradic- 
ting stories. The one most generally accepted is that 
a certain Arsaces came to Parthia from Bactria, 



134 Ancient Empires. 

whither he had been driven by the jealousy of Theo- 
dotus, the Greek king of Bactria. He at once in- 
stigated a revoh in Parthia and became leader of the 
rebellion. Being successful, he was made king of 
Parthia and founder of the dynasty. Another ac- 
count speaks of Arsaces as being a Scythian, from 
the nation called Dahae, who invaded Parthia, over- 
threw the Greek government and thus made himself 
king. Whatever may have been the truth in this 
matter, it is certain that Arsaces expelled the Greeks 
and was made king by the gratified people with the 
title of Arsaces I, the dynasty being henceforth known 
as the Arsacidae. 

Arsaces I died B. C. 247 and was succeeded by 
his brother, Tiradates, who took the title of Arsaces 
II. Under him the boundaries of Parthia were great- 
ly enlarged and the prosperity of the country made 
sure. 

In B. C. 245 Ptolemy-Euergetes, king of Egypt, 
entered Asia and captured Antioch. He then came 
on into Mesopotamia and overthrew every kingdom 
in his path. Bactria and Parthia alone survived. 
Owing to a rebellion in Egypt, the king was sud- 
denly recalled home and Bactria and Parthia were 
thus saved from his invasion. Meanwhile, the re- 
sources of the Parthian king had enormously in- 
creased. A multitude of soldiers were at his com- 
mand and unlimited supplies. Accordingly he be- 
came ambitious, organized an army, and began a 
career of conquest. The first successful opposition 
he met was from Seleucus Callinicus, king of Syria. 



The Parthians. 135 

Callinicus entered into an alliance with Bactria against 
Parthia and it seemed for a time that Parthian inde- 
pendence was at stake. Fortunately for Tiridates, 
known as Arsaces II, Theodotus, king of Bactria, 
died, and the son who succeeded his father, repu- 
diated the unnatural alliance with the Greek rulers 
and entered into a league with Parthia. The allied 
armies then fought a decisive battle with the Syrians 
and drove them from the country, B. C. 237. This 
Invasion of Callinicus taught the Parthians not to 
rely alone upon their cavalry, but to fortify their 
country against other possible invasions. Thus a 
character of stability was given to the country. 

About the year B. C. 214, Arsaces II died, and 
was succeeded by his son, Artabanus I. Under this 
king the conquest of Media was planned and com- 
pleted. 

Antiochus III, king of Syria, could not afford to 
allow his eastern dependencies to be thus taken from 
him without an effort for their recovery. Therefore, 
he gathered together a large army with which he re- 
conquered Mesopotamia. He passed successfully the 
Tigris river and the Zagros mountains, entered Media, 
restoring there the Syrian authority and then moved 
forward against Parthia. To do this, it was neces- 
sary for him to traverse the Iranian desert. Arta- 
banus, seeing the advantage this circumstance afford- 
ed, sent a detachment of his best cavalry into the 
desert to harass the Syrian army. The wells upon 
which Antiochus depended for water were poisoned 
and every source of supply for provisions was de- 



136 Ancient Empires. 

stroyed. Notwithstanding this the Syrian army suc- 
ceeded in entering Hyrcania and pressed on without 
the Parthians being able to stop it. Artabanus care- 
fully avoided a decisive battle with the superior Syrian 
forces and so wearied the Syrian king with fruitless 
campaigning that both armies arrived at an honor- 
able peace. 

Many years followed which the ancient historians 
considered of so little importance that no records were 
made of any events in that time. It was not until 
Rome had asserted its supremacy over the Grecians 
that Parthia emerged from the obscurity in which 
it had fallen. 

The revival of this country began B. C. i8i, the 
first sign of their returning activity being the suc- 
cessful war which they waged against the Mardi, a 
mountain . people, living in the fastnesses of the El- 
burz range. The most important named among the 
Parthian monarchs is Mithridates. His reign cov- 
ered a period of thirty-seven years, the most impor- 
tant and interesting in Parthian history. 

When Mithridates came to power in Parthia he 
found the chief governments of Asia to be in a state 
of inactivity and weakness. Bactria, his most ener- 
getic neighbor, became engaged in an obstinate war 
with a neighboring tribe on the east. Under some 
pretext that is now unknown, Mithridates led his army 
into the adjacent parts of Bactria and seized two of 
its provinces. The Syrian crown at this time was 
in the hands of Antiochus-Eupator, an incapable 
youth under control of the regent Lysias. The en- 



The Parthians. is*? 

ergies of Syria had been exhausted in a war with the 
Jews, and dissensions concerning the regency weak- 
ened the state. During this condition of affairs Mith- 
ridates threw his army into Media, a province of 
Syria. The Medians were aheady so near Hberty that 
it was a question which would be the greater obstacle 
to Parthian ambition, the Syrian army or the oppo- 
sition of the Medes themselves, but Mithridates was 
ultimately successful. 

With the addition of Media to his dominions, the 
king of Parthia entered upon his career as imperial 
conqueror. The Persians and Babylonians prefer- 
ring Parthian supremacy to that of the Grecian gov- 
ernment at Antioch, at the first show of force, cast 
their fortunes with Mithridates and thus, almost with- 
out a struggle, the extensive region in the southwest 
including the Babylonian plain and the whole coun- 
try eastward of the Carmanian desert, were added 
to the dominions of Parthia. 

The energies of Eucratidas, king of Bactria, were 
so constantly engaged in the difficulties in which he 
was involved on his borders next to India, that he 
was obliged to ignore the ambitions of his neighbor. 
It seems that the chief desire of Eucratidas was to 
extend his dominions eastward and leave Mithridates 
free to advance westward. Both of these being ex- 
ceedingly distasteful to the Bactrians, Eucratidas was 
removed from the throne by violence and his son, 
Prince Heliocles, was made king, thus immediately 
reversing the policy of his father. Mithridates, be- 
ing on the alert, perceived the danger arising in Bac- 



138 Ancient Empires. 

tria, and immediately throwing his army into that 
territory, quickly defeated the Bactrian army, cap- 
tured Heliocles, and added his kingdom to the rapidly 
expanding Parthian empire. 

Through a period of one hundred and seventy years 
the Seleucid kings had been supreme over the Asiatic 
countries west of India, but at this time nothing re- 
mained to Demetrius II but a comparatively small 
territory about Antioch. The encroachments of Par- 
thia and its growing power were such that the ex- 
istence of Syrian supremacy was now at stake. The 
Syrian army advanced beyond the Mesopotamian riv- 
ers and won several battles, but by a sudden onslaught 
the Parthian king routed the Syrians and captured 
Demetrius, after which the Syrian army went to 
pieces. 

Thirty-seven years had now been occupied in the 
conquests of Mithridates and he had become an old 
man. His empire had reached its greatest territorial 
extent and became the greatest power of Western 
Asia. Mithridates consolidated his authority as much 
as possible and constructed a strong government. He 
died B. C. 136. The crown descended to his son, 
Phraates II. 

The Syrian empire was bestowed upon Antiochus- 
Sidetes, brother of Demetrius, who was at that time 
confined in regal state at Hyrcania. 

Antiochus cherished the dream of recovering the 
lost Syrian provinces from the Parthian conqueror, 
and accordingly equipped an army which he led into 
Mesopotamia. As in the case of his brother, Deme- 



The Parthians. 139 

trius, his preliminary battles were successful, and he 
obliged the Parthian king to recede toward the cen- 
tral parts of the empire. 

As the chief men in the cities of the lost Syrian 
provinces were Greeks, at the first opportunity they 
abandoned their Parthian allegiance and went over 
to Antiochus. A brilliant expedient was now adopted 
by the Parthian king. He released his prisoner, De- 
metrius, who flew as quickly as possible to Antioch. 
The release of Demetrius was unknown to Antiochus, 
who pressed onward against Phraates II, the Parthian 
king, until winter set in, when he distributed his army 
among the cities and awaited a more suitable season 
for campaigning. Meantime, Demetrius, who had 
been deposed in favor of his brother, Antiochus, was 
stirring up discontent at Antioch, and the Syrian sol- 
diers, who had been quartered among the Mesopo- 
tamian cities for the winter, had become so riotous 
and lawless that the people heartily repented hav- 
ing broken their allegiance with Parthia. Having 
been made thoroughly acquainted with the situation, 
Phraates sent emissaries into these cities and organ- 
ized a plot for the destruction of the Syrian army. 
At a given time the citizens sprang to arms, sur- 
rounded the quarters of the drunken soldiers and fell 
upon them with such fury that scarcely a Syrian was 
left alive. When Antiochus heard of this destructive 
insurrection, he flew to the assistance of the soldiers 
with a body of troops which he had safely held un- 
der his own control on the plains outside of the cities. 
However^ he was too late. Phraates threw the Par- 



140 Ancient Empires, 

thian cavalry against him, scattered tlie Syrian troops 
and slew Antiochus. According to Diodoriis-Siceu- 
lus, three hundred thousand Syrians perished in the 
insurrection and during the battle that followed. In 
any event not a vestige of the Syrian army remained. 
The triumph of Phraates was absolute and Parthian 
authority became undisputed over all the vast terri- 
tory which they had conquered. 

As soon as it was known in Judea that Antiochus 
was slain, the Jews arose against their hated masters 
and achieved their independence. Regardless of the 
strenuous efforts of the succeeding kings of Antioch, 
it was sixty-three years before Palestine was again 
conquered and this was then done not by the Syrians, 
but by the superior power of the victorious Romans. 

No sooner had Phraates destroyed his Syrian ene- 
my than a more formidable enemy appeared on the 
north. Fearing that his own warriors could not suc- 
cessfully compete against the troops of Antiochus, 
he had invited a body of Scythian warriors to come 
to his assistance. When they reached the borders of 
the Parthian empire, Phraates had vanquished his 
enemy and therefore no longer needed the assistance 
of his wild neighbors, but they refused to return 
home without the liberal compensation which had 
been promised them. From the scene of his great 
Syrian victory he was obliged to turn against his 
Scythian allies. In the midst of the battle that fol- 
lowed the Greek contingent that was assisting him 
treacherously deserted him and went over to the Scy- 
thians. The Parthians, thus weakened, were routed 



The Parthians. I4i 

and swept from the field, Phraates, himself, being 
among the slain. The Scythians might now have 
conquered the entire territory of Western Asia if 
they had possessed the instinct of organization. 
However, they were contented with the spoils they 
received and returned home. 

The Greek army, now finding themselves free and 
supreme, moved westward, liberating all the provinces 
and cities in their course. 

Phraates was still a young man when he died, B. 
C. 127, and there was no son left to succeed him. 
The crown fell to his uncle, Artabanus II. 

No sooner were the Parthians relieved of the Greeks 
and the Scythians than the barbarious hordes from 
unknown regions north and east, beyond the Jaxartes, 
poured in upon them. According to Herodotus and 
Strabo these savage tribes were nameless and num- 
berless. They had wagons and carts peculiar to the 
woods and steppes, and they carried with them their 
women and children, household goods, herds and all the 
possessions which they considered of any value. All 
their energies and pleasure were in hunting, war and 
plunder. In the battle against the first advancing 
tribes of this overwhelming barbaric invasion, Arta- 
banus was killed, and the crown was then transferred 
to Mithridates II, his son. The stream of invasion 
was turned aside, but all the resources of Parthia 
were exhausted in the struggle to protect itself against 
the seemingly inexhaustible numbers. 

A period of obscurity in Parthian history prevails 
from this time until the legions of Rome came sweep- 



142 Ancient Empires. 

ing over Asia from the west. Crasus, with forty 
thousand Roman soldiers, reached the river Behk, 
about midway between Carrhae and Ichnae, on the 
6th of May in the year B. C. 54, and there he was 
met by the Parthian army under the command of 
Surena. 

The Roman cavalry were unaccustomed to defeat. 
Crasus, son of the commander-in-chief, at the head 
of six thousand horsemen, charged furiously upon 
the Parthians. Unaccustomed to such a violent at- 
tack the Parthians fell back as if in a panic. The 
young Crasus followed the flying enemy until out of 
sight of the main army, when suddenly the Parthian 
cavalry recovered itself, turned upon the Romans and 
completely surrounded them. Roman valor was of 
no avail and the forces of Crasus were beaten down 
almost to a man. The young commander was him- 
self slain ; his head was stuck upon a pike and carried 
at the head of the victorious Parthians in full view 
of the Roman army. Shattered by the disastrous 
battle, the legions began to recede from the field ; 
the wounded being abandoned were slain by the pur- 
suing Parthians. With the remnant of the army 
Crasus succeeded in reaching Carrhae, where behind 
ramparts he found security. 

Surena followed his retreating foe and at Carrhae 
made overtures to Crasus for peace. Surena rode out 
upon the plain between the two armies with unstrung 
bow and outstretched hand, calling upon Crasus to 
come forth and confer with him concerning peace. 
Crasus was beyond his sixtieth year and was glad 



The Pai:thians. 143 

for an opportunity to end his unprofitable campaign. 
Accordingly he went out to meet Surena. The terms 
of peace were agreed upon, but the Parthian com- 
mander desired the stipulations to be reduced to writ- 
ing. With this end in view the Romans were induced 
to go to Surena's tent, but on the way Crasus and 
his friends began to suspect treachery and they re- 
fused to proceed farther. In the quarrel that en- 
sued one of the Parthians was killed, whereupon Cra- 
sus and his men were set upon by their enemies and 
slain. At this unquestionably treacherous act, the 
Roman soldiers were in despair. Some of them es- 
caped, but most of them surrendered and were trans- 
ferred to the heart of the Parthian empire, where they 
were colonized and absorbed by intermarriage. 

At this overwhelming disaster, the empire was once 
more extended to the Euphrates river and Armenia 
came under Parthian dominion. 

From this time until the beginning of the third 
century after Christ the history of Parthia is com- 
posed of a monotonous series of wars with Rome. 
At one time Parthia seemed about to be overthrown 
by an army under Cassius, but a terrible pestilence 
entered the Roman army and almost destroyed it. 
Superstition ascribed the plague to supernatural ori- 
gin. It was said that a soldier had broken a cell in 
the temple at Seleucia, from which had issued the Spirit 
of Death to punish the Romans for their sacrilege. 
In terror the army receded into Europe, spreading 
the pestilence in their wake. Only a few soldiers 
reached Italy, but the pestilence was brought with 



144 Ancient Empires. 

them and their country suffered enormously by its 
ravages. 

After this the Parthians conquered nearly all the 
territory to the Mediterranean Sea, but in A. D. 197 
they were driven out of Syria. In the year A. D. 
211 when Caracalla succeeded his father, Severus, as 
emperor of Rome, Parthia was distracted by the con- 
tention of two brothers for the throne. The Roman 
emperor, being ambitious to win fame by war, took 
personal charge of the forces in the east operating 
against Parthia. The emperor, Caracalla, being of a 
treacherous disposition, devised a scheme whereby he 
might get an advantage over his eastern antagonist. 
He sent an embassy to Artabanus IV, king of Par- 
thia, with a letter in which he proposed a union of 
the Roman and Parthian empires by entering into 
marriage with the daughter of the Parthian king. 
Artabanus was amazed at this proposal, but seeing 
that war would follow his refusal, he finally yielded 
to the demand. Caracalla, accompanied by a strong 
military force, set out to visit the Parthian capital 
to receive his bride. Near Ctesiphon, he was met on 
the plain before the city by the Parthian king, with 
ceremonies befitting the great occasion. While the 
ceremonies were in progress a conference was held 
between the sovereigns, when, at a given signal, the 
Roman soldiers drew their swords and made such an 
unexpected attack upon the Parthians, that they were 
butchered by thousands. Through the heroic devo- 
tion of his bodyguard the king escaped, but Ctesi- 
phon was taken and plundered. Laden with their 



The Parthians. 145 

ill-gotten spoils, the Romans returned home through 
Babylonia. 

In the spring of A. D. 217 Caracalla made prepa- 
rations to renew the war with Parthia, but in April 
was assassinated in the temple of the Moon God 
at Carrhae. His successor, Macrinus, would gladly 
have come to a peaceful understanding with the Par- 
thians, but they were enraged to desperation and Ar- 
tabanus refused to accept the overtures of Macrinus, 
The two armies once more came together near the 
city of Nisibis, the metropolis of Mesopotamia. Both 
armies were at their best and for three days the furi- 
ous struggle continued. At the end of the third day 
the Parthians concentrated their forces and charged 
upon the Romans in a compact body. The legions 
were unable to withstand the onslaught and fled in 
disorder from the field, but the victors had suffered 
such enormous losses that the negotiations for peace 
which followed were closed without difficulty. Ar- 
tabanus received an indemnity in gold equal to about 
seven and one-half million dollars, and the Romans 
withdrew from the country. 

With this battle the three centuries of war between 
Rome and Parthia came to an end. No more battles 
were fought between them and a line was set to the 
aggressive ambitions of the Romans which they were 
never able to cross. However, internal dissensions 
had begun to prey upon the vitals of Parthia and 
its disruption was at hand. 

In the same year with the battle of Nisibis, the 
under-king of Persia, bearing the famous name of 



146 Ancient Empires. 

Artaxerxes, arose in rebellion. The dissensions of 
the State were such that the Persian king obtained 
an easy victory. A battle took place on the plain of 
Hormuz and Artabanus was slain. Others followed 
the example of Persia and the great empire, which 
had ruled over central Asia so many years, was di- 
vided into numerous petty kingdoms. 



THE HINDOOS. 

Records of mystery and strange wisdom are the 
chief historical heritages of India, but the rehgion, 

■'philosophy and occult art of the Hindoos have occu- 
pied the minds of men almost as much as the triumphs 
of Alexanders, Caesars and Napoleons. The learned 
men of India have cared little for this world and its 
glory. Their sole delight has been in the specula- 
tion and pursuit of the infinite and sublime. The arts 
and sciences of war and peace were always spurned 
as of inferior worth. The origin of this ancient 
people is clouded in such extraordinary and fabulous 

. legend as to admit of no light, but that they were 
early far advanced in civilization is shown by the 
highly wrought images in the island of Elephanta, 
by the observatory at Benares, and in their sacred 
literature which extends backward far into pre-his- 
toric times. 

The first well verified date in the history of India 
is that of the enthronement of the Hindoo prince, 
Chandragupta, contemporary of Alexander the Great, 
and called Sandracottus by the Greek historians. He 
became king B. C. 315, one hundred and sixty years 
after the death of Gautama the Buddha. Tlie liter- 
ature, inscriptions, and carved temples of the Hindoos 
furnish no information of their political history. 
However, more light on their ethnic origin has been 
furnished in recent years by the study of Sanskrit, 

(147) 



148 Ancient Empires. 

which was the language of the ancient Brahmanic 
Hindoos. From this came the new science of com- 
parative philosophy which has made clear many of 
the mysteries of the Aryan people. 

Mance wrote : "As far as the eastern and west- 
ern oceans, between the mountains, lies the land which 
the wise have named Arya- Vesta ; that is, inhabited 
by honorable men." The name Zend-Avesta, mean- 
ing honorable people, was given to the inhabitants of 
Iran, and Strabo says that in the time of Alexander 
the Great, the entire region of the Indus was called 
Ariana. The linguistic descendants of this word may 
be traced to Iran for Persia and Erin for Ireland. 
Herodotus gives the earliest accounts of this great 
tract of civilized country in his history written about 
a century before Alexander the Great. His descrip- 
tions of the country and its people correspond re- 
markably well with the modern Hindoos. His ac- 
counts were probably taken largely from those of 
Seylax of Caryandra, who was sent to explore this 
country by Darius Hystaspes. Until the time of Alex- 
ander, the Greeks had but little knowledge of the Hin- 
doos. Alexander went into the Pan jab with his vic- 
torious troops, but they refused to proceed further, 
and compelled him to embark on the Hydaspes, a 
tributary of the Indus, on which he proceeded one 
thousand miles to the ocean. 

Arrian wrote a narrative of this expedition, the 
facts of which he learned from the officers of Alex- 
ander. It tallies in its particulars remarkably well 
v^^ith the manners and customs of the modern Hindoos. 



The Hindoos. 149 

At the partition of Alexander's empire, India fell to 
the share of Seleucus. Familiarizing himself with 
this portion of his dominions Seleucus visited India, 
and two hundred years later a short expedition to 
that country was made by Antiochus the Great, but 
until the close of the fifteenth century no European 
power attempted to subjugate the Hindoos. 

Strabo and some Chinese historians say that about 
one hundred and twenty-six years before the Chris- 
tian era some powerful tribes of Tartars poured into 
Bactria overwhelming the kingdoms and putting an 
end to the dominion of the Greeks, after it had lasted 
nearly one hundred and thirty years. The rising 
thirst for commerce among the western European 
nations caused them, at the opening of the sixteenth 
century, to seek commercial intercourse with India. 
The richness of trade with the people of India was 
first demonstrated by Ptolemy, son of Lagus, who 
raised Alexandria to power and splendor by the 
profits of this commerce. As early as A. D. looo the 
Mohammedans had begun to acquire great influence 
over the Hindoos. Mohammed, a Tartar, conquered 
most of the country and established his capital at 
Ghazna near the head waters of the Indus. Wherever 
his power prevailed he destroyed every vestige of the 
Hindoo religion and established the Mohammedan in 
its stead. In 1194 Mohammed Gori captured Be- 
nares and one of its successors fixed the capital at 
Delhi. The sovereignty of Mohammed was over- 
whelmed in 1222, by Genghis Khan, whose empire in 
the following century was overthrown by Tamerlane. 



150 Ancient Empires. 

During this time the European powers had begun to 
be greatly interested in the affairs of Hindoostan, and 
while John II was king of Portugal, the Cape of 
Good Hope was doubled, thus opening a way to that 
country by sea. In the reign of Emanual his successor 
Vasco de Gama sailed around Africa and landed in 
India after a stormy voyage of thirteen months. Shortly 
after this a second expedition took place under the 
command of Alvarez Cabral with thirteen vessels. He 
first visited Calicut and through the intrigues of the 
Moors, fifty Portuguese were massacred by the inhab- 
itants. Cabral, enraged at this treatment, burned all 
the Arabian vessels in the harbor, cannonaded the 
town and set sail for Cochin. Because of this prompt 
chastisement, the petty kings along the coast hastened 
to placate the Portuguese with spices, gold and other 
gifts, and to form such alliances with them that in a 
short time the Portuguese were in possession of almost 
the whole country of Malabar. Lisbon, therefore, soon 
became the grand mart for all Indian commodities and 
merchandise. 

Toward the close of the sixteenth century numerous 
English navigators began to sail around Africa to In- 
dia. Such was the success of Drake, Stephens, Cav- 
endish and others that in the year 1600 some of the 
principal merchants in London formed a company 
which obtained an exclusive privilege of trading in the 
East Indies for fifteen years. Their charter was 
granted by Queen Elizabeth on December 31 of that 
year, and their commercial prosperity was henceforth 
so rapid that in a few years they determined to plant 



The Hindoos. 151 

colonies in India. Meanwhile the power of Portugal 
had waned and the Dutch became the great rivals of 
the English in the Eastern trade. Their rivalry was 
such that in the time of Cromwell, war was declared 
between England and Holland, with the result that 
the Dutch were almost driven from the Eastern seas. 

From this time on the English East India Company 
prospered. English settlements were planted and in 
1686 Calcutta was founded by Governor Charnock 
through the removal of the factories of the East India 
Company from Hugh. Exactly two hundred years 
later the imports of this city were three hundred mil- 
lion dollars, and the exports one hundred and twenty 
million dollars, while there has been a stupendous im- 
provement in the manners, customs and conditions of 
the people. 

The system of petty kingdoms with the enervating 
institutions of castes and religion, made the Hindoos 
an easy prey to the widening commercial encroach- 
ments of the English ; so that, after frequent insurrec- 
tions and bloody revolutions among the natives, Eng- 
land was compelled to protect its commerce by taking 
military possession of the territory now known as 
British India. On the second of May, 1876, Queen 
Victoria by formal proclamation received the addi- 
tional title of Empress of India. The whole body of 
the people had been from time immemorial divided into 
four orders. The highest was that of the Brahmans, 
who were devoted to religion and the cultivation of 
philosophy. To the second belonged the preservation 
ct" the state, they being its magistrates in peace and its 



153 Ancient Empires. 

soldiers in war. The third caste was that of the hus- 
bandmen and merchants. The fourth included the 
artisans, laborers and servants. These distinctions de- 
scended from generation to generation and the individ- 
uals of each class were compelled, invariably, to follow 
the professions of their forefathers. Every man knew 
the function in life allotted to him which he was thus 
forced to fulfill without aspirations or ambitions. From 
these institutions came that permanence of manners 
and customs which so singularly characterizes that an- 
cient nation. 



THE ORIENTALS. 

THE CHINESE. 

The little that we know of the ancient Chinese is 
drawn chiefly from their own sources, as they were 
unknown to the Greeks and Romans. The Syrians 
and Arabians are the first to mention China, which they 
called Dschina. That the Chinese empire has a very 
ancient civilization is without doubt, but that it has the 
age ascribed in their sacred books is too ridiculous for 
serious consideration. 

There are evidences that in the beginning, the coun- 
try now covered by the Chinese Empire was occupied 
by a large number of independent tribes. In the course 
of time these became united under one monarchy, be- 
cause of the similarity of country, climate, and general 
conditions. The Emperor, according to their legends, 
descended from Heaven, and in their political as well 
as in their religious machinery, he was the image and 
representative of God on earth. From the time of 
its earliest civilization, the nation appeared to have 
remained stationary, in that worthlessness and apathy 
of extreme conservatism, which made advancement im- 
possible. According to the Chinese writers, Fuh-hi 
founded the Chinese Empire about B. C. 2852. He is 
said to have introduced the raising of cattle, the art of 
writing, the institution of marriage, and the divisions 
of the year. He was succeeded by Shin-nung, who 
taught his people agriculture and medicine. The third 

(153) 



154 Ancient Empires. 

emperor, Hwang-ti, invented clocks, weapons, ships, 
wheeled vehicles and musical instruments. He is said 
also to have introduced coins, weights and measures. 
Ti-ku followed with the establishment of schools and 
the introduction of polygamy. Ti-ku was succeeded 
in B. C. 2357 by his son, Yau. He advanced the ma- 
terial prosperity of his country, and built many roads 
and canals. In B.C. 2207 Yu, the Great, became emperor 
and founded the dynasty of Hia. He was the first to 
center in himself all the resources of both civil and 
religious power. 

There is little in Chinese history from this time but 
a weary succession of uninteresting chronicles until the 
reign of Ching-wang, second sovereign of the Tsin 
dynasty, from B. C. 246 to B. C. 210. This emperor 
erected the great wall of China in order to protect his 
country from the incursions of the Tartars. This great 
wall, known to the Chinese as Wan-li-chang, meaning 
the myriad mile wall, is the most gigantic work of de- 
fense ever erected. Its entire length over great moun- 
tains, through deep valleys and across wide streams, is 
about one thousand five hundred miles. The eastern 
section has a height of from fifteen to thirty feet, and 
such a breadth that six horsemen may conveniently ride 
abreast upon it. At frequent intervals there are brick 
towers forty feet high, and through most of the dis- 
tance the foundation is made of solid granite.. 

Ching-wang resolved that the history of China 
should begin with his reign. He was the first to assume 
the title of Hwang, or emperor, and in order to remove 
all record of former sovereigns, he ordered all books to 



The Orientals. 155 

be burned in which their names were to be found. Thus 
the earHest hterature of China was destroyed, including 
the writing of Confucius and Mencius. All that is 
known of their works is obtained from the few frag- 
ments that escaped destruction. 

Confu-tsee, known to history as Confucius, was con- 
temporary with Pythagoras about B. C. 550. Mang- 
tsze, known under the Latinized name, Mencius, is sec- 
ond as a moral teacher in China after Confucius. His 
birth is believed to have taken place about B. C. 372. 
In the reign of Ming-ti A. D. 58 to A. D. 76, a Buddhist 
priest named Ho-shung came from India into China and 
introduced the Buddhist religion. There is a tradition 
among the Armenian Christians that the Apostle 
Thomas visited China during the reign of Ming-ti. 

The first ambitious warrior to occupy the throne of 
China was the emperor Kowt-sung. He organized an 
army and led it westward to the confines of Persia. 
Here he died and was succeeded to the throne by his 
son Tai-tsung, who was the great hero of Chinese ro- 
mance. He introduced many changes both in civil and 
religious afifairs. To him is attributed most that is 
commendable in the present Chinese civilization. In 
A. D. 636 the Nestorian monk, Olopen, visited China 
and spent several years preaching Christianity. The 
successors of Tai-tsung were weak and unambitious. 
As a result the empire was frequently plunged into 
civil wars, and the Tartars steadily increased the extent 
of their encroachments. In A. D. 1215, under Zen-gis- 
Khan, they overran China, and advanced to Pekin. In 
1279 She-tsu, better known as Kublai Khan, estab- 



156 Ancient Empires. 

lished the first Mongol dynasty in China. The Mon- 
gols did not interfere with the national customs or 
religion, but favored Buddhism. It was during the 
reign of Kublai Khan that the famous European trav- 
eler, Marco Polo, visited China. He was hospitably 
entertained by the emperor and returned to Europe 
with the first accurate information about the Chinese. 
Following the death of Kublai Khan, Tartar power 
declined in China. 

The first and largest revolution recorded in the his- 
tory of China occurred in 1342, following a famine 
which was said to have swept away thirteen million 
people. In 1358 a Buddhist monk named Chu Yuen- 
chang became the leader of a revolution, overthrew 
the Mongol dynasty, and became emperor under the 
name of Hung-wu. He founded the dynasty which 
governed China for two hundred and seventy-six 
years. During the reign of Emperor Shi-tsung, which 
began in the year 1522, the first commercial intercourse 
with Europeans was opened with China by the Portu- 
guese who had established themselves in neighboring 
islands. The Dutch endeavored in 1604 to open a 
trade with China by sending three vessels to that coun- 
try, but they were refused admittance at every Chinese 
port. In 1662 the Dutch attempted, by force, to open 
up a trade with China, but were driven away. They 
secured possession of the Pescadore Islands, which 
they afterward exchanged for Formosa. Meanwhile 
there was a constant struggle going on betw^een the 
Mantchoos and the Chinese for supremacy. At last 
through the instigation of the emperor of China, the 



The Orientals. 157 

king of Mantchooria was assassinated. This act so ex- 
asperated the Mantchoors that a civil war broke put in 
1635 and lasted nine years, resulting in a temporary 
overthrow of the reigning power, and the final eleva- 
tion to the throne of Sunchi, son of the king of Mant- 
chooria. This Mantchoo prince was a mere youth 
when he came to the throne. Strange to say, his educa- 
tion had been conducted by a German Jesuit named 
Adam Schall who, some years later, was made prime 
minister of China. 

The Dutch again renewed their attempts in 1653 to 
open a trade with China, but were again refused. How- 
ever, trading rights were granted to the Russians, who 
have ever since made the most of their advantages. In 
166 1 Kang-hi came to the throne and chose for his 
chief counselors two Frenchmen named Bouvet and 
Gervillon. This emperor enlarged his dominions by 
the conquest of Thibet and Formosa. During his reign 
the empire was surveyed. A map of it was made by 
European engineers, and several institutions of learn- 
ing were established for the promotion of science and 
literature. In the latter part of the reign of Kang-hi 
an earthquake destroyed Pekin, during which four 
hundred thousand persons perished. In 1736 Ki en- 
lung came to the throne, and extended his dominions 
by the conquest of the greater part of central Asia. 
Like his father he distrusted the Christian missionaries 
and persecuted them severely. Most of the schools 
established by them were destroyed, and much of their 
work rendered useless. Kien-lung refused to open 
commercial relations with all Europeans excepting the 



158 Ancient Empires. 

Eussians, who were thus enabled to establish an exten- 
sive commerce in the northern provinces of the empire. 
During the succeeding reign Mr. Morrison, an English 
Protestant missionary, succeeded in translating the 
Bible into Chinese. In conjunction with Mr. Milne, 
they founded the Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca. 
In the early part of 1839 Lin, the imperial viceroy, 
seized by order of his government and destroyed all 
the opium at Canton, to the value of ten million dollars. 
An imperial edict ordered the suppression of the opiam 
trade, as illicit, and in this the English merchants 
found an opportunity too profitable to be lost. In re- 
taliation the Chinese government declared all commer- 
cial relations with Great Britain at an end. This led 
to what is known as the Opium War, through which 
England forced China to make free to foreign com- 
merce the ports of Canton, Amoy, Ningpo, Foochoo 
and Shanghai. As indemnity China was compelled to 
pay Great Britain twenty-one million dollars, and to 
cede the island of Hongkong. At the close of the war 
in 1842 the United States sent Caleb Gushing to China 
and succeeded in negotiating a commercial treaty on 
July 3, 1844. China still hated foreigners, and desired 
to have no intercourse with them. As a result foreign 
nations were continually subjected to petty annoyances 
and insults. In 1857 France and England resolved to 
force a settlement with China for numerous infractions 
of treaties made with these two powers. On the 28th 
of December, Canton was bombarded by an allied 
French and English fleet. The next day it was occu- 
pied by the allied forces which consisted of about five 



The OriBntals. 159 

thousand five hundred men. Russia and the United 
States now entered into an alHance with England and 
France for a combined effort to force a more liberal 
treatment of foreign nations by Chma. The Chinese 
government yielded, and satisfactory treaties were 
entered into with the four powers named, which ad- 
mitted the residence of foreign ministers at Pekin, 
opened several ports in addition to those made free by 
the treaty of Nankin, and provided for the free naviga- 
tion of the Yang-ste-Kiang river. An indemnity of 
five and one-half million dollars was paid to Great 
Britain, and about half that amount to France. But, 
as usual, China endeavored to evade the terms of the 
treaty by prescribing almost prohibitory restrictions 
and imposing the most vexatious delays. In conse- 
quence of this, the British ministers ordered Admiral 
Hope to force the passage of the Pei-ho. The attempt 
to execute these orders was defeated and the English 
were driven back with great loss to the mouth of the 
river. The British and French ministers left Shanghai 
and called upon their governments for instructions. 
The American minister, Mr. Ward, decided to accept 
the inconveniences and indignities prescribed by the 
Chinese Government, and so was enabled to reach 
Pekin, but he was denied any communication with the 
emperor except upon such degrading conditions to 
himself and his country that he returned in disgust to 
Shanghai, where he joined his colleagues. The war 
was renewed and a joint expedition of the English and 
French was sent to take the Chinese capital. The Pei- 
ho forts were taken August 21, i860, and three days 



160 Ancient Empires. 

later Tien-tsin was occupied. The Anglo-French forces 
pushed on and arrived before Pekin October 6. Vig- 
orous operations against the city were at once begun. 
The emperor's magnificent palace was plundered and 
burned. A week after the arrival of the forces one of 
the gates of the city was surrendered to them. The 
imperial government was forced to renew the former 
treaties and pay satisfactory indemnities. 

Numerous insurrections occurred of more or less 
magnitude in various parts of the empire, but all of 
them were suppressed. In 1871 China lost the district 
of Kulja, embracing an area of more than six hundred 
thousand square miles, which the Chinese were forced 
to cede to Russia, in satisfaction for a quarrel that 
arose between the two countries. 

In 1867 Anson Burlingame, a former minister from 
the United States to China, found such favor with that 
government that he was placed at the head of an em- 
bassy which visited the various European powers and 
the United States. For some reason the French were 
especially hated by the Chinese, and in June, 1870, oc- 
curred the Tien-tsin massacre, in which the French 
consul, the vice consul with his wife and his interpre- 
ter, a Catholic priest, nine sisters of charity, a French 
merchant and his wife, and three Russians were bru- 
tally murdered by a mob ; the buildings of the embassy 
were destroyed and foreigners were forbidden to re- 
enter the city. The imperial government took extreme 
measure to punish all who were concerned in the mas- 
sacre and a special embassy was sent to France to 
express the regret of the emperor for the crime. The 



The Orientals. i6i 

foreigners were invited to return to the city, and spe- 
cial guards afforded for their protection. About this 
time was brought to a close the Tai-ping rebellion 
which had lasted fourteen years. As a result of the 
suppression of this rebellion, two men were brought 
into great prominence before the world. One of these 
was Li Hung Chang, and the other Colonel Charles 
George Gordon, of the Royal Engineers, who was sub- 
sequently captured and killed in the Soudan by the 
Mahdi. The services of General Gordon had been 
enlisted by Li Hung Chang in the suppression of the 
Tai-Pings, and he was thenceforth popularly known 
as Chinese Gordon. At the death of the emperor Tung- 
Che, the imperial crown went to his cousin, Kwang- 
sen, who was not yet four years of age. The direct line 
of descent in the Mantchu-Tartar dynasty was thus 
broken for the first time since 1644. At this time when 
China was so much in need of a strong mind to direct 
its affairs, all turned to Li Hung Chang as the man 
best fitted for control. He established military schools, 
and camps of instruction, employing European officers 
to drill the army in the tactics of the West. A fleet of 
gun boats was built, and the capital was impregnably 
fortified. He established navy yards and arsenals, and 
went so far as to have several first-class men-of-war 
built in English and German docl< yards. In 1878 the 
Chinese government sent its first permanent embassy 
to the United States, and the commercial relations be- 
tween the two countries were greatly extended. 

Little worthy of note took place in the unwieldy do- 
minions of the Chinese empire until war occurred 



163 Ancient Empires. 

between it and Japan, as the result of their long con- 
tinued rivalry for supremacy in the Corean peninsula. 
The formal declaration was made by Japan in August, 
1894. Notwithstanding the efiforts of Li Hung Chang 
to create an effective army, the Chinese were continu- 
ally beaten by their northern neighbors, until they sued 
for peace and agreed to pay a large indemnity in terri- 
tory and money. 

The result of this war served to bring again to the 
surface the hatred of the Chinese for foreigners. In 
July, 1895, a secret order, known as the Vegetarians, 
massacred eight English missionaries at Whasang, 
near Kucheng. England made such demands for the 
punishment of the offenders that all the officers impli- 
cated were degraded, and twenty-four of the Vegeta- 
rians put to death. Since then it has been apparent 
that the Chinese government has a most difficult posi- 
tion in which to maintain itself between the ignorant 
and fanatical hordes of its own territories, and the con- 
stant encroachments of foreign nations that have estab- 
lished themselves upon its borders. The irresistible 
pressure of foreigners continues, and the fate of China 
hangs in the balance. 

THE JAPANESE. 

The first reasonable record of the Japanese people 
begins with B. C. 600. They are described by the na- 
tive historians as being at that time in a very low state 
of civilization; their bodies were hairy, they ate raw 
meat, and lived in rude structures that could hardly be 
termed houses. The first great name in their chron- 



The Orientals. 163 

icles was Jimmu Tenno. He was a great civilizer and 
it is said that he tamed his savage countrymen. 

The higher classes of the Japanese affirm that they 
are descended from Jimmu Tenno, leaving the infer- 
ence that the lower orders are the offispring of the 
hairy savages whom he conquered. There is much in 
the physiognomy of those people to bear out the tra- 
dition that there was some such amalgamation of two 
widely divergent races. 

The capital of Jimmu Tenno was at Kioto. The 
title Mikado, signifying honorable gate, is derived 
from him. Several famous empresses are found in the 
Ime of Jimmu. During the reign of one of these 
women, Jingo Kogo, Corea was conquered. It is 
recorded that her son upon his death was deified as 
the god of war. In the year A. D. 550 one of the 
princes of Corea came to Japan with the books and 
idols of the Buddhists, which he presented to the em- 
peror. The doctrines of Confucius had heretofore pre- 
vailed in their religious beliefs. The religion of 
Buddha made such headway that, in the reign of the 
Empress Suiko, A. D. 593, it was granted full tolera- 
tion and had won the nobles to its cause. 

In the first quarter of the ninth century a script was 
invented for the writing of their language, by the fa- 
mous Priest Kobo, and there is little of interest in the 
history of the country further than the gradual enlight- 
enment and development of the people from that time 
until the year 1260, when the great Tartar Emperor, 
Kublai Khan made his successful invasion of China 
and sent embassadors to Japan. Most of these embas- 



164 Ancient Empires. 

sadors were put to death, and Ktiblai Khan determined 
upon invasion of Japan in revenge. This was begun 
fourteen years later, but the Japanese drove the Tar- 
tars back with great slaughter. In 1281 Kublai Khan 
entered upon a second invasion of the island kingdom, 
with a great fleet and army. Fortunately for the Jap- 
anese a fierce storm destroyed the Tartar's fleet, and 
the army of the Shogun — or general in chief — drove 
the enemies away. Civil wars rent the country during 
most of the fourteenth century, and the factious dis- 
turbances were not ended until the year 1573. Imme- 
diately following this period Hideyoshi, a leader of one 
of the factions, being opposed to the Buddhist religion, 
encouraged and strengthened the Jesuit missionaries 
who had appeared among them, and on his overthrow 
the missionaries were expelled from the empire, many 
of them being treated with barbaric cruelty. This 
leader aspired to conquer China. One hundred and 
sixty thousand men, in 1592, invaded the celestial em- 
pire, under General Kato Kiyonasa; but at this junc- 
ture Hideyoshi died, and the expedition was aban- 
doned. One of his warriors, lyeyasu, disputed with 
the son of Hideyoshi for the leadership and was suc- 
cessful. The shogunate of Tokugawa was thus 
founded, and its princes held power in Japan from 
1603 until 1867. Yedo was made capital of Japan by* 
lyeyasu, and he is justly regarded as the most illus- 
trious prince in Japanese history. 

During the time when the Jesuit missionaries had 
obtained such a foothold in Japan, Portuguese sailors 
had established a profitable commerce with the people. 



The Orientals. i65 

But when it was discovered that the Jesuits were 
endeavoring to advance their interests by uniting with 
the enemies of the Buddhists, the fudatory nobles insti- 
gated at Nagasaki in the year 1622 the terrible massa- 
cre, which drove the Christians from the island. A 
decree was then issued for the expulsion of the Portu- 
guese merchants, and the trade that had been enjoyed 
by them was given to the Dutch, whose enmity to the 
Catholics made them acceptable to the Japanese. In 
1640 the Christian natives revolted in the island of 
Amakusa, invaded Japan and captured the castle of 
Shimabara, which they held for a considerable time 
against the army of the Shogun. The Japanese bor- 
rowed several cannon from the Dutch, and with 
them reduced the castle, after which ensued a massacre 
of more than thirty thousand of the invaders. The 
Dutch thus obtained such favor with the Japanese that 
for more than two centuries they held a complete 
monopoly of the foreign trade with Japan. The United 
States succeeded in breaking this exclusiveness and 
monopoly in the year 1854, through the efforts of Com- 
modore Perry. An advantageous treaty was ratified 
and cordial relations established between the two coun- 
tries. England and Russia followed the example thus 
set, and the harbors of the islands were rapidly opened 
to foreign commerce. 

In 1 87 1 the first remarkable divergence from ancient 
customs was made by the emperor. He issued a de- 
cree removing all the social disabilities of his people, 
and admitting them indiscriminately to full citizenship. 
Since that time the rise of Japan in the arts of civiliza- 



166 Ancient Empires. 

tion has been one of the most remarkable events in his- 
tory. At a bound the people and government reached 
a position which it had taken ages of strife and blood 
for the western people to achieve. In August, 1894, 
the rivalry of long standing between China and Japan 
for supremacy in Corea came to a head through the 
formal declaration of war. The Japanese attacked 
Ping-yang, on Sunday, September 16, and killed or 
captured seven thousand Chinese. Two days later a 
naval battle was fought at the mouth of the Yalu, 
lasting five hours, in which the Japanese sank four of 
the Chinese vessels, and seriously damaged the others. 
November 21, a Japanese army under Marshal Oyama, 
captured Port Arthur and a deplorable massacre of 
Chinese soldiers followed after the surrender. 

The Japanese army now advanced into Manchuria. 
The Yalu river was crossed in October, when the army 
separated into two divisions of twelve thousand five 
hundred men each. The right wing went north to 
the Fen-Shai-Ling Pass, the left wing went west in 
order to open communications with the army of 
twenty-two thousand men under Marshal Oyama, 
which was being sent by sea to Pekin. The Chinese 
were constantly defeated, and the Japanese army, after 
severe fighting, captured Kaiphing, in December. In 
February, the Japanese seized Wei-Hai-Wei. The 
Chinese fleet in the harbor continued to fight with the 
Japanese fleet several days, but on the i6th surren- 
dered. The continual disasters of the Chinese forces 
shows that they were not equipped to contest with their 
more warlike neighbors and negotiations were entered 



The Orientals. i67 

into for the conclusion of the war. The terms of peace 
were signed April 17, Corea was given its inde- 
pendence, and a substantial indemnity in money and 
territory agreed upon. Unfortunately for Japan, 
Russia, Germany and France objected to the ceding of 
the Liao Tung peninsula. In compensation for this 
loss of territory, Japan received an additional indem- 
nity of thirty million taels. Following the conclusion 
of this successful war, the progress of Japan has con- 
tmued, so that it has won the unequivocal respect of all 
nations. 



GREECE. 

The Heroic Age. 

The heroic age of the Greeks covers the period from 
the first appearance of the Hellenes in Thessaly to 
their return from the expedition against Troy. The 
only source of our information concerning the early 
Greeks comes from their numerous marvelous legends 
of wars and heroic achievements, which bear but little 
internal evidence of historical authenticity. These 
stories would be of little importance to the student of 
history were it not for the light which they throw upon 
Grecian mythology. The chief among these legends are 
those which recount the labors of Hercules, the ex- 
ploits of Theseus, the events of the Argonautic expedi- 
tion, the wars of the Seven Captains, and the struggles 
of their survivors in which Thebes was plundered by 
the Greeks. Hercules was the most celebrated hero 
of the Heroic Age. He is reported to have been the 
son of the God Jupiter and Alomena. When he was an 
infant, Juno, in jealousy, sent two serpents to devour 
him. His divine power was then first made manifest. 
The child seized both the serpents in his hands and 
squeezed them to death. The jealousy of Juno was not 
yet rebuked and, by means of artifice, she caused him 
to make an oath to Jupiter through which he became 
subservient for twelve years to the will of his enemy 
Eurystheus. In order to break the divine power of 
Hercules, Eurystheus commanded him to achieve a 

(168) 



Greece. leo 

number of seemingly impossible enterprises, which are 
generally known as the Twelve Labors of Hercules. 
Through the kindness and good will of the Gods, he 
was amply equipped for his undertakings. Mercury 
gave him an irresistible sword, Vulcan provided a 
golden breastplate, Apollo gave him an extraordinary 
bow, Neptune provided remarkable horses, Minerva 
gave him a robe, and he, himself, cut a club from the 
Nemean wood. The following is an enumeration of 
the Twelve Labors : 

1st, He strangled the Nemean lion, which ravaged 
the country near Mycenae, and ever after clothed him- 
self with its skin, 2d, He destroyed the Lernean hydra, 
a water-serpent, which had nine heads, eight of them 
mortal, and one immortal, 3d, He brought into the 
presence of Eurystheus a stag, famous for its incred- 
ible swiftness and golden horns. 4th, He brought to 
Mycense the wild boar of Erymanthus, and during this 
expedition slew two of the Centaurs, monsters who 
were half men and half horses, 5th, He cleansed the 
Augean stables in one day, by changing the courses of 
the rivers Alpheus and Peneus, 6th, He destroyed the 
carniverous birds which ravaged the country near the 
Lake Stymphalus in Arcadia. 7th, He brought alive 
into Peloponnesus a prodigious wild bull which rav- 
aged the island of Crete, 8th. He brought from 
Thrace the mares of Diomede, which fed on human 
flesh, 9th, He obtained the famous girdle of Hippol- 
yta, queen of the Amazons, loth. He killed, in an 
island of the Atlantic, the monster Geryon, who had 
the bodies of three men united, and brought away his 



170 Ancient Empires. 

purple oxen. nth. He obtained from the garden of the 
Hesperides the golden apples, and slew the dragon 
which guarded them. 12th. He went down to the 
lower regions, and brought upon earth the three- 
headed dog Cerberus. 

The Argonautic Expedition is said, in the popular 
legend, to have been undertaken by Jason and fifty- 
four of the most renowned heroes of Greece, among 
whom were Theseus and Hercules, for the recovery 
of a golden fleece which had been deposited in the 
capital of Colchis, a province of Asia Minor, bordering 
on the eastern extremity of the Euxine. The adven- 
turers sailed from lolcos in the ship Argo, and during 
the voyage met with many adventures. Having ar- 
rived at Colchis, they would have been unsuccessful in 
the object of their expedition had not the king's daugh- 
ter, Medea, who was an enchantress, fallen in love with 
Jason, and defeated the plans of her father for his de- 
struction. After a long return voyage, filled with 
m.arvelous adventures, most of the Argonauts reached 
Greece in safety, where Hercules, in honor of the ex- 
pedition, instituted the Olympic games. 

Some have supposed this to have been a piratical ex- 
pedition; others, that it was undertaken for the pur- 
pose of discovery, or to secure some commercial estab- 
lishment on the shores of the Euxine, while others have 
regarded the legend as wholly fabulous. 

The Athenian Theseus, according to the Greek leg- 
end, was the chief hero of Attica. He was the son 
of Argus, king of Athens, and of Aethra, daughter of 
Pittheus, king of Troezen. When he reached his ma- 
turity, he set out to visit his father at Athens. On the 



Greece. i7i 

way he met with many wonderful adventures. He cap- 
tured the Marathonian bull and went with the youths 
and maidens who were sent as the annual tribute to 
Minos. There he: slew the Minotaur, with the help of 
Ariadne, daughter of Minos, who fell in love with him. 
She made him a present of an irresistible sword and 
gave him the clue of thread by which he was enabled 
to escape from the labyrinth. Ariadne went with him 
to the island of Naxos, where they separated. He then 
fought single-handed a battle with the Amazons, who 
invaded Attica. He was one of the Argonauts and 
took part in the Caledonian hunt. He cut ofif the head 
of Medusa, and performed such other marvelous ex- 
ploits as make him next to Hercules, the chief hero 
of Ancient Greece. 

The seven captains of the Theban and Argolic war 
were the seven sons of the seven Argive chiefs, who un- 
successfully attacked Thebes. Ten years later their sons 
and survivors, known as the Epigoni, again attacked 
the Thebans. They were successful, Thebes was de- 
stroyed, and their fathers avenged. These two wars 
are supposed to have occurred shortly before the Tro- 
jan war. 

THE TROJAN WAR. 

The siege of Troy is supposed to have been under- 
taken about the year B. C. 1173 by the confederated 
princes of Greece. Troy is famous in Greek legends 
as the capital of Priam and as the object of the remark- 
able siege under the Greek, Agam.emnon, King of 
Mycenae. The events of this siege furnished for 
Homer, the Greek epic poem known as "The Iliad," 
and its companion poem, "The Odyssey." 



172 Ancient Empires. 

The siege of Troy was undertaken to redress the 
injury done to Menelaus, king of Sparta, by the abduc- 
tion of his wife, Helen. The goddess Aphrodite had 
given her to the Trojan, Paris, as a reward for his 
favorable decision in the contest of beauty between 
her and the goddesses, Athene and Hera. Paris was 
the second son of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba. 
Before his birth, Hecuba, his mother, dreamed that her 
child would be a firebrand, which would cause a great 
conflagration in their city. The dream was interpreted 
as a prophesy that her son would cause the destruction 
of Troy. Accordingly, Paris, at his birth, was exposed 
on Mount Ida, but was miraculously saved, and finally 
restored to his father's household. At his marriage 
to Oenome, daughter of the river-god Cebron, oc- 
curred the quarrel among the goddesses as to which 
was the most beautiful. Paris, being the judge, 
awarded his decision to Aphrodite, who rewarded him 
by assisting him to seize and carry away to Troy, 
Queen Helen, the most famous beauty of Sparta. The 
outraged Greeks at once prepared to recapture her, 
and so laid siege to the city of Troy. 

According to the Grecian legends, Helen was the 
most beautiful woman of her age. She was the daugh- 
ter of Tyndarides, king of Lacedaemon, and was sought 
in marriage by all the princes of Greece. Tyndarides, 
desiring not to ofifend any of these princes, decided on 
the advice of Ulysses, to bind all the suitors by oath 
that they would approve of the uninfluenced choice of 
Helen, and would unite to defend her person and char- 
acter from the attacks of any enemy that might there- 



Greece. 173 

after arise. Helen chose Menelaus, brother of Aga- 
memnon, and king of Sparta. 

The siege of Troy lasted ten years, when the city 
was taken and destroyed, B. C. 1163. Most of the 
inhabitants were slain ; some were taken prisoners, and 
a few saved their lives by becoming exiles in distant 
lands. From the conflicting accounts of both legends 
and historians, it is impossible to state whether the 
city was taken by treason, stratagem or storm. 

A series of extensive explorations on the alleged site 
of ancient Troy have been conducted by Dr. Schlie- 
mann, a noted German archaeologist. The foundations 
of a city has been laid bare, which was evidently de- 
stroyed about 1,500 years before the Christian era. The 
ruins lie at an average depth of thirty feet below the 
surface and bear marks of a severe conflagration. Al- 
though it has not been conclusivelv proved that these 
ruins belong to the Troy of Homer, yet the discoveries 
seem to substantiate, to a considerable degree, the story 
of his great epic. 

The ancient Grecians were known as Hellenes, and 
the country was called Hellas. The word "Greek" was 
not used before the time of Aristotle, and was given to 
them by the Romans. The first acquaintance that the 
Romans had with their neighbors came through a 
near tribe called Grseci, and that name was accordingly 
given to the whole country. A small spot in Thessaly 
was first called Hellas, but later on, wherever Greeks 
settled in the Mediterranean peninsula, the territory 
was called Hellas. 

The Hellenic migrations probably came from 



174 Ancient Empires, 

Plirygia. The name Hellenes is said to have come 
from Hellen, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. Deucalion 
was the king of Phthia in Thessaly, who was saved, 
with his wife, from the deluge sent by Zeus. These 
two were the only surviving persons in the world, and 
were saved by placing themselves in a wooden chest, 
which Deucalion had built on the advice of his father, 
Prometheus. They landed on Mt. Parnassus, after 
floating nine days. In order to renew the human race, 
which had been destroyed by the flood, they were com- 
manded to veil their faces and throw behind them the 
bones of their mother, but misunderstanding the com- 
mand, they threw stones. Those thrown by Deucalion 
became men, and those thrown by his wife, Pyrrha, be- 
came women. With these people Deucalion founded 
the kingdom of Locris. 

From Hellen, the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, de- 
scended the Dorians, Aeolians, lonians and Achseans. 

Modern investigation has shown conclusively that 
the Greeks are a branch of the great Indo-European 
race, coming in successive migrations from Asia 
Minor. 

Argos Avas the first city to attain political importance 
at the close of the Heroic Age. For several centuries 
It was the leading power in the Peloponnesus. In the 
course of time, however, it was compelled to yield its 
supremacy to the growing cities of Athens and Sparta. 

REPUBLIC OF SPARTA. 

Sparta was the chief city and capital of Laconia, a 
small territory situated in the southern part of Pel- 
oponnesus. After the return of the descendants of 



Greece. 175 

Hercules, who were known as the Heraclidse, the gov- 
ernment of the country was administered by the two 
sons of Aristodemus. The double administration of 
this monarchy was transmitted to the descendants of 
each of these sons for a period of eight hundred and 
eighty years. This joint union gave cause for radical 
dissensions, which ultimately became anarchy, and the 
want of ? regular system of laws could no longer be 
disregarded. In this state of affairs, the rulers turned 
to Lycurgus, brother of one of the Spartan kings, and 
a man distinguished not alone for his great abilities 
but for his stern and unyielding integrity. To him was 
given the important duty of framing a new constitution 
for his country. The arduous task was at last com- 
pleted. It bears throughout the stamp of original 
genius, and is a masterpiece of practical wisdom 
adapted to the existing needs of his state. Neverthe- 
less, it may be almost wholly condemned in the name 
of justice and humanity. 

The Spartan community for which he made these 
laws was in substance democratic, and yet in its gov- 
erning forces it was essentially aristocratic. That the 
great need of such laws was fully appreciated by the 
entire state may be accepted from the fact that he in- 
duced his fellow-citizens to renounce all property from 
which any important inequality might arise, and to 
submit to the most exacting and rigorous supervision 
of their personal affairs. Everything movable ceased 
to be private property, and the land was measured out 
in so many parts that every Spartan and Laconian had 
sufficient for his family's support. In order to prevent 



176 Ancient Empires. 

the industrious from becoming richer than the indo- 
lent, the quaHfied occupant of the land was not per- 
mitted to cultivate it. Such work was permitted alone 
to the Helots, or slaves. That the idea of wealth 
might be banished from the land, gold and silver were 
proscribed and the use of iron as money was substi- 
tuted. 

In order to provide the state with citizens full of 
self-denial and burning with active patriotism, their 
education by the state commenced with birth and con- 
tmued through the whole of life. The Spartan girls 
were put through the severest physical exercise with the 
men, which however fatal to modesty, produced the 
strongest possible race of women. In order to secure 
to the state the most vigorous children, those that were 
born feeble were doomed to die. The tribunal ap- 
pointed to judge in this matter rendered a decision a 
few days after the child's birth, and if it was found 
strong enough to meet the requirements of the state, it 
was left with the mother for four or five years, after 
which it became the property of the state, and was 
henceforth subjected to the rigid discipline that made 
the Spartans the most courageous heroes of ancient 
times. 

All the citizens, not excepting the kings, were re- 
quired to take their meals at the public tables. A kind 
of black broth was the chief article of food, and every 
form of luxury and excess was excluded. When the 
people were seated at these public meals, the oldest 
man present was accustomed to arise, and, pointing to 
the door said, "No word spoken here goes out there." 



Greece. 177 

Ihis regulation produced mutual confidence and al- 
lowed them to speak to one another in unrestrained 
conversation. They were accustomed to speak in. brief 
sentences and from that custom has come the word 
laconic, being derived from Laconia, one of the names 
of their country. 

To such extreme was their training carried that a 
liar was punished not for the lie, but for the fault of 
being discovered. A successful thief might be re- 
warded for his cleverness, but he was liable to punish- 
ment and disgrace for discovery in the act. Plutarch 
tells the story of a boy who had stolen a fox and con- 
cealed it under his cloak. Rather than to suffer the 
disgrace of being discovered, the boy allowed the fox 
to tear an opening into his bowels. 

The masculine energy and severity instilled into the 
character of the women were such as to make military 
glory their chief admiration. Mothers rejoiced when 
there was an opportunity for their sons to go into bat- 
tle, and they considered themselves ennobled if one 
of their sons fell fighting for his country. The parting 
injunction of a Spartan mother to husband or son was, 
"Return with your shield or upon it." 

For five hundred years the strange institutions of 
Lycurgus continued in full force. During this period 
the other cities of Greece were torn with domestic dis- 
sensions, but the government of Sparta was solid and 
invincible. However, during the reign of Lysander the 
opportunity and ambition for conquest arose and the 
country was filled with wealth secured from the spoils 
of war. The severe manners and rigid virtues of the 



178 Ancient Empires. 

citizens relaxed ; their laws and institutions were 
changed, and a period of avarice and luxury prevailed. 
In the midst of this, Sparta, with the other Grecian 
States, sank under the dominion of Philip, king of 
Macedon. 

THE MESSENIAN WARS. 

The Spartans, under the severe laws of Lycurgus, 
and the ambitions of later kings, became a terror to 
their neighbors. The Messenians resisted their en- 
croachments and several bloody wars resulted. The 
first lasted twenty years, from B. C. 743 to 723. Dur- 
ing this time the resources and energy of the Spartans 
seemed exhaustless, but the Messenians, though brave 
and warlike, became more and more weakened until at 
last they were compelled to conclude a disadvantageous 
peace. The submission, being forced upon them, could 
not be considered permanent, and the unhappy people, 
goaded to desperation by the oppression of their con- 
querors, took up arms again in the hope of being able 
to free themselves from the galling yoke. This second 
war was under the leadership of Aristomenes, a prince 
of the most generous and noble feelings, exalted pa- 
triotism, and intrepid character. This time, the Argives 
and Arcadians, alarmed at the growing ascendency of 
Sparta, joined the Messenians, and three times in suc- 
cession defeated the encroaching Lacedaemonians. At 
this the Lacedaemonians, or Spartans, began to lose 
courage and applied to the Oracle for advice. The 
.Oracle replied that they could not hope to win against 
the Messenians and their allies unless a leader was ob- 



Cjreece. i^9 

tained from Athens. Accordingly they sent to Athens 
asking for a suitable leader. The Athenians, not wish- 
ing to aid the Spartans, sent the elegiac poet Tyrtseus, 
then a lame schoolmaster without reputation, Tyrtseus 
however, proved an inspired leader. He wrote patriotic 
songs, which thrilled the Spartans to their highest ef- 
forts, the result being that the tide of war was turned, 
the Spartans overcame their enemies, and defeated 
them with irreparable losses. Aristomenes, seeing 
that he could not save his country from entire subju- 
gation by continuing the struggle, visited foreign 
courts and endeavored to raise enemies elsewhere 
against the oppressors of Messenia, but he died before 
anything was accomplished, and the remnant of the 
Messenians were either reduced to slavery or trans- 
ferred to the island of Sicily, where they built a city 
called Zancles, afterward famous under the name of 
Messina. This war lasted fourteen years, ending B. 
C, 760. Its result confirmed the supremacy of Sparta 
in southern Greece. 

ATHENS. 

The Spartans, otherwise known as the Lacedaemo- 
nians and Laconians, were at complete variance in 
their stern and unyielding character with the lively, 
polite and humane nature of the Athenians. Lacedae- 
mon had long found a bitter rival in Athens. After 
the death of Codrus, B. C. 1068, the Athenians abol- 
ished royalty and appointed magistrates under the 
name of archons, to govern them in the place of kings. 
At first the authority of these rulers was for life, but 



180 Ancient Empires. 

later their term of office was reduced to ten years, and 
then to one. The restless and inconstant spirit of the 
Athenians could not be controlled by the limited power 
of the magistrates ; therefore, disturbances and fac- 
tions constantly agitated and weakened the state. To 
provide against this they had recourse to new legisla- 
tion in a manner similar to the Spartans, when they 
invested Lycurgus with the duty of preparing a new 
constitution. 

Draco was at that time, B. C. 624, the most re- 
nowned in Greece, for his wisdom and integrity. Upon 
him devolved the task of preparing the required laws. 
This he did^ and such was their severity, that tradition 
says they were written in blood. According to Draco 
the virtue of the state could only be secured by making 
death the penalty for the least crimes, and since no 
heavier penalty could be devised for greater offences, 
the one sweeping penalty of death covered all. Such 
laws could not be put into execution in Athens. They 
were tried for awhile, then fell into disuse and the dis- 
orders of the state were as great as ever. To remedy 
the distressful state of the government, the Athenians 
next had recourse to the genius of Solon, a descendant 
of Codrus. His great talents had won for him the 
respect and affection of the whole people, and he was 
appointed archon by the unanimous consent of all 
parties. Such was their confidence that they invested 
him with full authority and made him their common 
arbiter and legislator. He at once annulled all the 
statutes of Draco, except that which inflicted capital 
punishment for the crime of murder. Strange to say 



Greece. i8i 

the Athenians at this time held murder in such horror 
that they would not pardon anything which appeared 
to have the remotest tendency to that crime. As an 
illustration of this it is related that on one occasion their 
most famous tribunal called the Areopagus, con- 
demned to death a young boy who had been seen 
cruelly picking out the eyes of birds. The murderous 
disposition thus discovered in him, made the tribunal 
feel that he would afterwards become a scourge to 
society, and that the people would be best protected by 
his death. No law was enacted against the enormous 
guilt of parricide because such a crime had never been 
known in Athens, and SSlon considered it so nearly im- 
possible that no mention was made of it in his code. He 
did not endeavor to make the poorer classes independ- 
ent as Lycurgus had done, by dividing the land among 
them, but he took efficient measures to relieve them of 
their debts to the wealthier classes. 

In Sparta the exclusive occupation of both sexes 
had consisted in a bodily and military exercise, which 
naturally led to a life of warfare ; but Solon sought to 
inspire in the Athenian youths loftier sentiments. His 
chief desire was to make them industrious, and to 
create in them a love for the arts of peace. His efforts 
were successful, and no city was ever more distin- 
guished than Athens for the masterpieces it produced. 
In the course of a few generations the Athenians ex- 
ceeded all the people of antiquity in refinement and 
sagacity. Even the lowest classes of society acquired 
artistic tastes, and it is related that a market woman 
discovered the celebrated Theophrastes to be a 



182 Ancient Empires. 

stranger from ths slight accent which she heard in his 
pronunciation. 

According to the new code, the Athenians were di- 
vided into four classes ; three of the rich, and one of 
the poor. The rich retained exclusive possession of all 
state offices, magistracies and employments. However, 
the poor were given the fight to vote in public assem- 
blies. As the poor were so numerous this franchise 
gave them great power. In compliance with Athenian 
legislation, none were admitted to membership in their 
tribunals excepting men of superior intelligence, wis- 
dom and experience. The legislative body at Athens 
thus became the most respected and renowned in the 
world. Its reputation for justice and sagacity became 
so great that the Romans themselves frequently re- 
ferred their difficulties to the Athenian court. It may 
be truly said of this august senate that there was never 
any object of consideration before them but to ascer- 
tain the truth, and execute justice. In order that ex- 
ternal objects might not disturb the attention of the 
judges from the subject in hand, their most important 
sessions were held at night or in isolated places. Their 
advocates and orators were required to talk directly to 
the point, and were not privileged to make use of any 
exordium, peroration or digression. 

Having completed his laws and seeing them in suc- 
cessful operation, Solon endeavored to devise some 
plan which would prevent his countrymen from chang- 
ing the course thus set for tHem. He .caused the peo- 
ple to swear that these laws should be unchanged for 
one hundred years. He then went into foreign countries 



Greece. i83 

and traveled for ten years, visiting the most fenowned 
courts of the great nations. When he returned to Ath- 
ens he found the people distracted by civil feuds and 
factions. He had the grief to see rise rapidly to power 
an ambitious demagogue named Pisistratus. This art- 
ful man was possessed of great riches, which he lav- 
ishly distributed among the poor, thus securing their 
friendship and votes. Under the veil of moderation 
and beneficence, the unprincipled Athenian pursued his 
way toward the overthrow of the Athenian liberties. 
His eloquence, affability and benevolence made the 
common people a unit in his favor. He persuaded them 
that his popularity had made him so odious to the 
nobles and wealthier people of the state that a body 
guard was necessary for his personal safety. To give 
sufficient color to this claim, Pisistratus inflicted upon 
himself a number of wounds, and while his body was 
covered with blood he caused himself to be carried to 
the market-place in his chariot. There he roused the 
indignation of the citizens by giving them to under- 
stand, in a fiery speech, that the mobles had at- 
tempted to assassinate him because of his earnest zeal 
for the good of the people. In spite of the remon- 
strances of Solon an assembly was at once convened, 
and forty guards were voted for the security of Pisis- 
tratus. This crafty usurper in a short time, under 
various pretexts, was enabled to have this guard in- 
creased from forty to six hundred. A little later, with 
the assistance of these devoted followers, he found an 
excuse to take possession of the citadel, and then made 
himself absolute master of Athens, B. C. 561. Solon, 



184 Ancient Empires. 

finding himself unable to prevent the usurpation, bent 
all his energies to make the new administration as 
beneficent to the state as possible. The aim of Solon 
was to secure the liberty of the people rather than the 
irresponsible freedom of the populace. He considered 
the forms of a pure democracy dangerous, and desired 
to limit them by a moderate aristocracy. In this re- 
gard he was in perfect accord with Pisistratus, and the 
power which had been so illegally acquired was admin- 
istered with commendable equity and mildness. En- 
couragement was given to every form of art and in- 
dustry. The distress of the needy and afflicted was 
relieved with prudent liberality, and the city was em- 
bellished with great judgment. During this time no 
effort was spared to promote the happiness and exalt 
the splendor of Athens. 

So much was done for the good of the people that 
the tyrannical usurpation of Pisistratus was greatly 
redeemed. Solon did not long survive, but died B. C. 
558. According to his will, his body was burned and 
the ashes were sown in the island of Salamis, which in 
his youth he had won for Athens. 

As soon as Pisistratus was master of the city he 
banished Lycurgus and Megacles, who had been most 
active in opposing him. In a short time they succeeded 
in arousing such opposition to Pisistratus that he was 
driven into exile, but a disagreement of his enemies 
resulted in a compact between Megacles and Pisistra- 
tus in which the usurper, by marrying the daughter of 
Megacles, was permitted to return to Athens. The 
tyrant, however, treated his newly acquired wife with 



Grreece. iss 

such contempt that Megacles again made common 
cause with Lycurgus, and Pisistratus was again driven 
into exile. During this second exile he lived in Euboea 
ten years, at the end of which he returned to Attica, 
collected a body of partisans at Marathon, defeated his 
rivals and again made himself supreme in Athens. 
Pisistratus in this third term of tyranny, employed a 
band of Thracian mercenaries and through them was 
able to maintain his authority without molestation. He 
enforced scrupulously the statutes of Solon, and won 
the applause of the Fourth Estate, as the poor were 
called, by throwing open to them his magnificent gar- 
dens. He gave great encouragement to art and litera- 
ture, established the first public library in Greece, and 
placed the world under obligations to him by gathering 
together the Homeric poems. 

Athens was in a state of tranquillity and prosperity 
for the thirty-three years during which it continued to 
be under the direction of his great executive ability. 
He died B. C. 527, and the government descended to 
his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. The poets, Ana- 
creon and Simonides, were maintained at the Court of 
Hipparchus, who is also noted as having placed the 
Hermoe, or small statutes of Hermes, over the city 
and country as boundary posts, on them being placed 
the moral sayings of noted philosophers, to remind the 
people of their obligations. A private feud now 
brought about a change in government. Harmodius, 
a politician of considerable following, gave offense to 
the two rulers, and, in retaliation, Hippias publicly in- 
sulted the sister of Harmodius. At the festival of 



iS6 Ancient Empires. 

Panathensea, Harmodius and a friend, Aristogiton, 
stood with daggers hid in the myrtle leaves upon which 
their food was to be placed, and awaited an opportunity 
for bloody revenge. While Hippias was conversing 
with one of their number, the conspirators rushed upon 
the two kings, and Hipparchus was killed, but Hippias 
escaped. Instead of endeavoring to conciliate his ene- 
mies, and modify the public discontent, Hippias en- 
tered upon a career of cruelty and oppression, which 
could not long endure in Greece. Clisthenes, the son 
of Megacles, won the Delphic oracle over to the side 
of the people of Athens, and succeeded in causing it to 
advise the Spartans to interfere against Hippias. A 
force was sent over from Lacedsemon and the tyrant 
was driven into exile. He went to the Persian court, 
which was a welcome home for all the enemies of Gre- 
cian liberty. Clisthenes at once became leader of the 
popular party, and laid the foundation of Athenian 
democracy by changing the constitution so that any 
above the class of extreme poor might have a share in 
the government. In order to provide against the pos- 
sibility of ambitious citizens becoming demagogues and 
then despots, as had been the case with Pisistratus, 
Clisthenes introduced ostracism. This plan provided 
that whenever six thousand votes were cast for the 
banishment of any man whom the people considered 
dangerous to the state, his exile would be ordered with- 
out question or inquiry. As it was a difficult matter to 
cause six thousand free citizens to vote for the ostra- 
cism of another free citizen, without just cause, there 
was less abuse than might be expected in such an ex- 
traordinary system. 



Greece. 187 

The almost fatal divisions and quarrels of the classes 
for supremacy continued, until they were awakened 
from their folly by finding themselves face to face with 
the danger of destruction from a relentless foe, with 
whom almost every petty state in Greece had been in- 
triguing for the discomfiture of the others. From the 
direction of Persia there came the overshadowing 
warning of such a danger that every quarrel was 
hushed, every wound was closed, and all parties united 
to save themselves from the king of Persia. 

THE PERSIAN WAR. 

Darius, son of Hystaspes, being incensed against the 
Athenians for having aided the people of Ionia in an 
attempt to throw off the yoke of Persia, and for having 
burned and ravaged Sardis, the capital of Lydia, de- 
termined upon the subjugation of the Greeks. An in- 
solent demand of submission was made upon them, 
which Athens and Sparta scornfully refused, and Da- 
rius began a hostile movement, both by sea and land. 

The Persian messengers to Aegina and Thebes re- 
turned to Darius with the earth and water required 
as symbols of submission, but the heralds coming to 
Athens and Sparta were thrown into wells and told to 
procure for themselves, the earth and water they de- 
manded. 

Mardonius, the Persian general, was succeeded by 
Datis, son of the former governor of Lydia, and assist- 
ed by Artaphernes, a fleet of five hundred ships was 
collected with an army of one hundred thousand men. 
Provisions against a repetition of previous disasters 



188 Ancient Empires. 

were carefully made and the fleet soon arrived at the 
islands of the Aegean Sea. It proceeded first to Ere- 
tria, a city of Euboea, against which Darius was greatly 
incensed because of the assistance it had given to the 
lonians in their revolt. He destroyed the city and 
sent the inhabitants to Persia in chains. Hippias, the 
banished king of Athens, burning with revenge, led an 
army of Persians toward Attica and landed on the 
narrow plain of Marathon. The Spartans were un- 
willing, because of their superstitious fears, to go into 
battle until after the full of the moon, thus leaving the 
little band of Athenians to oppose the entire force of 
Persians. But the Athenians had a remarkable mili- 
tary commander in Miltiades, who concentrated the 
energies of the republic, and inspired the people with 
extraordinary enthusiasm and ardor. 

At the time that Darius invaded Scythia, Miltiades 
was tyrant of Chersonesus, and, having accompanied 
Darius in the Scythian expedition, was well acquainted 
with the Persian mode of warfare. Miltiades did not 
await the approach of the Persians, but marched im- 
mediately onward to Marathon with his little band of 
ten thousand men, prepared to encounter the Per- 
sian host of more than one hundred thousand. 
Miltiades drew up his force on the narrow plain 
where it was almost impossible for the Persians 
to use their cavalry with any effect. Datis, the 
Persian commander, saw the advantage taken by 
the Greeks, but believing that his superior force was 
overwhelming, he decided to risk an engagement. At 
the signal for battle the Athenians advanced running, 



Greece. 189 

and engaged the Persians in a hand to hand conflict. 
The unwieldy forces of Datis were at once thrown 
into disorder and retreated in confusion to their ships. 
The victorious Greeks slaughtered twelve thousand 
Persians, set a large portion of their fleet on fire, and 
captured seven of their best vessels. As an incident 
of the ardor of the Athenian soldiers it is related that 
one of the men finding victory secure left the battle- 
field and ran with the news to. the city. Exhausted and 
covered with blood he fell dead at the feet of the mag- 
istrates, after exclaiming, "Rejoice, rejoice, the vic- 
tory is ours." 

The enthusiastic Athenians now agreed to , furnish 
Miltiades with a fleet of seventy ships for the purpose 
of punishing those unpatriotic islands which had fa- 
vored the Persians. Paros, which was not one of these, 
was besieged, but for some reason not definitely known 
to history, the siege was raised and Miltiades returned 
home. Miltiades had maintained secrecy concerning 
his attack on Paros so that when the fleet sailed away 
its destination was known only to the commander-in- 
chief. On his return home Miltiades was accused of 
treason and fined fifty talents. Being unable to pay 
this fine, he was thrown into prison where he died. 
After his death the fine was paid by public subscription 
and the stigma raised from his nam.e. The unhappy 
fate of Miltiades is often cited in proof of the fickle 
character of the people, and is used as an argument 
against democratic institutions. Without doubt the 
republic of Athens has much to answer for on the 
score of ingratitude, but there is much to say in favor 



190 Ancient Empires. 

of the Athenians in their conduct toward Miltiades. 
When he asked the government to furnish him a fleet 
without orders as to its destination, he gave the assur- 
ance that his enterprise was honorable and would 
prove of great advantage in wealth and glory to his 
country. Much , treasure was spent, and many lives 
were lost apparently through the incapacity or treach- 
ery of Miltiades. Whatever the cause of the failure, 
the expedition returned home in disaster and disgrace, 
and the character and purposes of Miltiades became at 
once objects of the closest scrutiny. It was found that 
private resentment against a prominent citizen on the 
island of Paros, was the motive of the expedition. All 
in all, the expedition was found to be unprincipled and 
therefore dishonorable to the Athenian people. As it 
was in a time of peace and the Parians had not taken 
part with the enemies of Athens, popular resentment 
against Miltiades arose all the higher because of the 
extraordinary homage they had paid to him as the hero 
of Marathon. After deliberate investigation and judg- 
ment the recent favorite was impeached as worthy of 
death. In this view the sterling integrity of the 
Athenians is made all the more prominent because jus- 
tice demanded that gratitude for the previous services 
of Miltiades should not exempt him from just punish- 
ment. The fine imposed was not unreasonably heavy, 
but he refused to pay it and so was sent to prison. The 
wound from which he died while there was not re- 
ceived in battle, but came from a fall which had oc- 
curred some time before. Considering these circum- 
stances there is reason to believe that the case of Mil- 



Greece. 191 

tiades does not show that republics are fickle, but rather 
illustrates the inflexible sternness of Athenian justice. 

Notwithstanding his defeats, Darius was as deter- 
mined as ever to subjugate Greece. He spent the fol- 
lowing three years in preparing one of the most power- 
ful armaments that was ever sent forth on any expedi- 
tion of invasion. He intended to lead the Persfan forces 
himself, but just before they were ready to set forth he 
died and his son Xerxes ascended the throne and took 
command. At. the death of Darius, the Egyptians re- 
volted. Xerxes threw part of his army of invasion 
into Egypt, quickly crushed the revolt, and then went 
on to Greece. However, realizing the desperate cour- 
age of the people he was intending to subjugate, he 
spent four years in preparation for v/hat was intended 
to be an irresistible conquest. He marched towards the 
Hellespont with all his force, and passed the winter at 
Sardis, from which place he sent heralds demanding 
submission from all the Grecian states, excepting La- 
cedsemon and Athens. The Thessalians and some other 
minor provinces submitted. When spring came the 
Persian army, estimated by some to have consisted all 
told of nearly five million persons, including women, 
children, slaves and general camp followers, moved on 
towards Greece. 

A bridge of boats was made across the Hellespont 
for the passage of this enormous host, but the rapidity 
of the current and the width of the strait not being 
sufficiently estimated, the undertaking proved a fail- 
ure. A storm destroyed the bridge, and Xerxes in a 
fit of passion ordered the workmen who had con- 



193 Ancient Empires. 

structed it to be put to death. The rebelHous sea was 
then scourged with three hundred lashes. A second at- 
tempt was more successful, and a steady stream of peo- 
ple poured across the bridge for about seven days and 
nights. At Dor, Xerxes reviewed his army. He 
found his available infantry to be one million seven 
hundred thousand ; his cavalry eighty thousand, and 
his fleet of one thousand two hundred and seven ves- 
sels each equipped with three hundred fighting men. A 
contingent of Egyptian soldiers followed in twenty 
vessels, each carrying two hundred men. Besides 
these there were small galleys, transports, and other 
auxiliary vessels carrying provisions amounting in all 
to about three thousand ships. Such a formidable army 
seemed invincible, and the Greeks were in great terror. 
The principal anger of the Persians being directed 
against Athens and the Lacedasmons, these two states 
assumed the lead in all the efforts for defense. Am- 
bassadors were sent to Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, to 
Argos and to the Isles of Corcyra and Crete. But no- 
where could help be found. The Athenians then took 
recourse to their superstitions and consulted the Oracle 
of Delphi. The usual equivocal answer was returned 
that when all else was destroyed they might preserve 
themselves by their wooden walls. 

Themistocles was now at the head of Athenian af- 
fairs, and he interpreted this answer to signify that 
their safety lay in ships. Themistocles was one of the 
most profound politicians of ancient times, and, fully 
foreseeing the great invasion that was now under way, 
he had begun immediately after the battle of Marathon 



Grreece. 193 

to increase the maritime power of Athens. The whole 
resources of the government and people were thence- 
forth employed in building galleys. Two hundred of 
these vessels were ready to meet the Persian fleet. 
Themistocles was given supreme command, and Eury- 
biades, a Spartan, was made commander in chief over 
the several forces of the allies. In the presence of such 
appalling danger the petty animosity of the Greek 
states subsided, and Themistocles joined in soliciting 
the return gi Aristides, whose banishment he had as- 
sisted to procure. In the invasion of Darius, Aristides 
had been of great service to the state, and because of 
his spotless integrity of character, had acquired the 
surname of Just. When the question of his ostracism 
was being voted upon he was asked by a citizen, who 
did not recognize him, to write the name of Aristides 
upon the shell which he intended to vote. "Why," said 
the astonished man, "what evil has Aristides done 
you?" "None that I know of," said the citizen, "but I 
am tired of hearing him called 'The Just.' " Aristides 
then wrote the name as requested, and there were so 
many votes favorable to his banishment, that he went 
into voluntary exile, but returned at the invitation of 
his country. 

Xerxes marched without difficulty through Thrace, 
Macedonia and Thessaly. Every city through which 
he came prepared for him splendid entertainments, and 
Xerxes believed that he could rnarch on with ease over 
the necks of subservient people. But at the Pass of 
Thermopylae, there was lying in wait for him Leonidas, 
king of Sparta, with over five thousand regular troops. 



194 Ancieat Empires. 

This pass was a narrow sea between Mt. Aetna and 
the sea leading from Thessaly to Phocis. Its name 
was derived from two Greek words, Thermae, meaning 
warm spring, of which there were several near, — and 
pylse, gates. This passage was not wide enough for 
two chariots to pass abreast, but the Persian land 
forces were obliged to pass this in order to reach At- 
tica. When Xerxes saw that Sparta had taken pos- 
session of this Pass, he sent them what was intended to 
be a conciliatory message. "The Persians," so the messen- 
ger said, "are not at war with the Spartans, but with 
the Athenians only; therefore, Xerxes desires you to 
lay down your arms." "Tell him to come and take 
them," was the reply of Leonidas. The Persian troops 
came on and found the Grecian phalanx planted across 
the Pass of Thermopylae. This phalanx was a square 
battalion of soldiers with their shields joined and their 
pikes crossing each other. The rank and file were so 
closely arranged that it was an exceedingly difficult 
task to break it. For three days the Persian host 
threw itself upon that body of devoted men, like waves 
of the sea upon a rocky shore, but the Spartans held 
the Pass. At last treachery, which seemed to defile 
the Greek character almost as much as their unparal- 
leled heroism ennobled it, succeeded in helping the 
Persians to a victory they could not otherwise have 
attained. A Grecian deserter showed the Persians a 
secret path. When it was found that the Persians 
were pouring over the mountains, Leonidas deter- 
mined to sacrifice himself and his devoted followers in 
order to show the Persians the unconquerable nature of 



Greece. 195 

the people they sought to subjugate. However the 
Oracle had already foretold that either Sparta or her 
King must perish. Three hundred Lacedaemonians 
decided to share the heroic fate of the Spartan king, 
and without a hope of victory or escape the little band 
advanced to the attack, determined that their lives 
should be a costly sacrifice to the enemy. Leonidas 
was the first to fall, but his soldiers rallied around 
his body and fought until twenty thousand Persians 
were slain. Only one of the three hundred men re- 
mained alive to carry the news to Sparta, but to 
such a pitch had the heroic ardor of the people been 
raised that the surviving man became the contempt 
of his countrymen, who vied with one another in giv- 
ing honor and glory to those who had so nobly died. 
At the pass where the Spartan soldiers of Lacedsemon 
so nobly fell was erected a monument bearing this in- 
scription, written by Simonides : "Go, stranger, and 
tell Lacedasmon that we died here in obedience to her 
laws." 

Meanwhile a terrible storm had destroyed hundreds 
of vessels in the fleet of Xerxes, although it was 
still vastly superior to the Grecian fleet. It had fol- 
lowed the land forces and lay near them on the north- 
ern coast of Euboea. Several hard and desperate en- 
gagements took place between the opposing fleets, the 
Athenians being successful in every instance. Find- 
ing that the Persians had forced the pass of Ther- 
mopylae, the Grecian fleet withdrew and the Persians 
took possession of Euboea. Xerxes passed on through 
Phocis, burning the cities and laying waste the coun- 



196 Ancient Empires. 

try. At this time the Peloponnesians, disregarding 
the claims of their alhes, fortified their peninsula by 
building a strong wall across the isthmus, from the 
Gulf of Corinth to the Gulf of Athens, thus deserting 
the Athenians. When this unpatriotic selfishness was 
discovered by the Athenians they abandoned their 
city and all the able-bodied male citizens went aboard 
the ships, piously trusting in the prophecy of the 
Oracle concerning wooden walls. The city was sol- 
emnly committed to the protection of Minerva, and 
the women and children were sent to Salamis and 
Aegina. In a short time Xerxes reached Athens, 
burned the citadel and slaughtered the few citizens 
who had determined to meet their fate in the de- 
struction of the city. All the pieces of fine art found 
in the city were sent to Susa, which had become the 
capital of the Persian Empire. 

The Greek fleet, consisting of 380 vessels, was at- 
tacked by the Persians with a fleet of 1,200 ships. 
Xerxes placed himself on an eminence, from which 
he could oversee the fight, and when the certainty of 
defeat became apparent, he at once left the scene and 
hurried on across the Hellespont. 

The army of Mardonius, consisting of 300,000 Per- 
sians, was met at Platsea by the combined army of the 
Athenians and Lacedjemonians, and totally defeated, 
B. C. 479. As an incident illustrating the character 
of the age, on the night before the battle of Platsea, 
Alexander, one of the soldiers of Macedonian merce- 
naries fighting in the ranks of the Persians, stole 
out of camp in the darkness and visited the Greek 



Greece. 197 

camp, where he called for an interview with Aristides, 
informing him of the Persian plans for the coming 
attack. He excused his treachery toward the Per- 
sians by saying: "I am myself a Greek by descent 
and with sorrow would I see Hellas enslaved by the 
Persians." Ten days were consumed by the victorious 
Greeks in dividing the spoils they had secured by 
their great victory. The body of Mardonius was 
found among the slain and given honorable burial by 
Pausanias. The most conspicuous traitor to the cause 
of the Greeks was Thebes. A contingent of Theban 
troops had been placed by Mardonius opposite the 
Athenians, and their desperate valor at times seemed 
about to win the day for the Persians. The first 
duty of the victors was to punish their treacherous 
kinsmen, and Spartan troops at once proceeded to 
ravage their territory, and lay siege to the city of 
Thebes. A demand was made upon the authorities of 
the city that the leaders of the unnatural alliance with 
the Persians should be given up for punishment. 
This was refused, but the leaders decided to surrender 
themselves, expecting that their friends could ransom 
them, but no sooner were they in the power of Pau- 
sanias than they were sent to Corinth and executed. 

On the same day of the victory at Plataea the Greeks 
destroyed the remainder of the Persian fleet at My- 
cale. The ambitious schemes of the Persian kings con- 
cerning Greece thus came to an end and the inglorious 
life of Xerxes was soon terminated by assassination. 
He was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes Longimanus, 
B. C. 464. 



198 Ancient Empires. 

At the close of this war the national character of 
the Greeks reached its highest elevation. The com- 
mon danger had annihilated all petty animosities and 
made them a united nation, but no sooner was the 
common danger averted than the Greek character for 
internecine, quarrels reasserted itself and the petty 
antagonisms once more broke forth. Sparta meanly 
opposed the rebuilding of Athens, which had been 
destroyed by Xerxes, and when Athens had again risen 
to splendor, it saw with pleasure the depopulation of 
Sparta by an earthquake, and rendered poor assist- 
ance when the Spartan slaves took advantage of the 
calamity to rise in rebellion. 

When Cimon, the son of Mathiades, who expelled 
the Persians from Thrace and destroyed their fleet off 
the coast of Pamphylia, was supplanted in public favor 
by Pericles, he was exiled, only to be recalled for still 
greater service to his ungrateful country. He landed 
in Cilicia and completed his triumph over the Persians 
by defeating three hundred thousand under Mega- 
byzes, B. C. 460. Artaxerxes, the Persian king, was 
compelled to sue for peace, which was granted by 
the Greeks on the most favorable and honorable terms. 
The freedom of the Greek cities of Asia was assured, 
and it was stipulated that the fleets of Persia should 
not approach the Grecian coast from the Euxine Sea to 
the extreme boundary of Pamphylia. 

In this period flourished Pericles, Socrates, Plato, 
Aristotle, Xeno and Pythagaros, and others so emi- 
nent as poets, sculptors, historians, architects, painters 
and philosophers, that no other age in the history 



Greece. 199 

of the world has been so prolific of great men. Peri- 
cles, in whom were combined the characteristics of the 
admiral, general, statesman and orator died of a 
plague which raged at Athens B. C. 429. 

THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 

Athens and Sparta were such bitter rivals for su- 
premacy that it seemed impossible for the two to exist 
together as independent states. Athens was at the 
head of the Ionic race of Greeks and Sparta at the head 
of the Doric. Athens was a democracy and advocated 
the widest liberties for the people. Sparta was an 
aristocracy and its policy was to favor privileged 
classes. Athens was mistress of the sea and in that 
capacity was able to demand and collect tribute from 
her allies. Sparta, not being in a position to levy 
tribute, made no claims upon its allies. On account 
of this, in the commencement of the great contest 
between the chief powers of Greece, the people out- 
side of the contending countries chiefly favored Sparta. 
The Athenian allies were groaning under the burdens 
imposed upon them and were secretly looking to 
Sparta for deliverance. 

Archidamus, king of Sparta, at the head of the 
Peloponnesians, advanced into Attica. Pericles, who 
commanded the Athenian forces, determined to pre- 
vent a battle, but, to retaliate for the injuries in- 
flicted by the Spartans, determined to make a descent 
upon the Peloponnesian coast. The inhabitants of the 
country, endangered by the advance of Archidamus, 
were caused to destroy their own houses and fields. 



200 Ancient Empires. 

to remove their herds to Eubcea and retire to the 
city. The distress of the multitudes thus gathered 
together was very great, but they cheerfully lent their 
energies toward the success of the war. Archidamus 
ravaged the country and the popular voice of Athens 
demanded a battle. Pericles, strong in the wisdom 
of his course, remained through the clamor fixed in 
his purpose. Meanwhile, agreeable to his plans, the 
Athenian fleet ravaged the western coast of the Pelo- 
ponnesus and caused such distress among the in- 
habitants that the Spartan army was compelled to re- 
turn to their defense. During this period each was de- 
stroying the other, while neither gained anything of 
advantage. 

The next year the city of Athens was visited by a 
most virulent plague, which broke out in the city 
among the multitudes that were crowded together 
there. The mortality was so great that the dying 
were unattended and the dead were left unburied to 
increase the horrors of the pestilence. As a strong 
comment on human nature, the living, instead of 
mending their ways, fell into the most disgraceful 
hcentiousness. In the midst of the general distress 
Pericles alone remained unmoved, although the 
plague had swept away most of his devoted personal 
and political friends. His sister and two sons were 
its early victims. Only once did this great statesman 
give way to his emotion, and that was when his 
youngest and favorite son was stricken. His ancient 
house was now without an heir, and his enemies, led 
by the brilliant Cleon, openly charged him with the 



Greece. 201 

most disgraceful private and public crimes. It seemed 
for a time as if he was about to be thrown from 
the leadership of his nation, but the investigation into 
his conduct, which was made at his demand, re- 
vealed only a self-sacrificing and noble patriot. The 
people saw that an unjust persecution had been waged 
against their great leader, and he was triumphantly 
re-elected to the office of Strategus or General. A 
year later his strength gave way under the great 
strain of sorrow and responsibility, and he died. On 
his death bed he said to his weeping friends, who 
were recalling the brilliancy and glory of his achieve- 
ments : "What you praise in me is partly the result 
of good fortune, and at all events common to me with 
many other commanders. What I chiefly pride myself 
upon you have not noticed. No Athenian ever wore 
mourning through me." 

In the second campaign, B. C. 430, Attica was 
ravaged by the Peloponnesians, and they succeeded 
in plundering the silver mines of Alurium. The next 
year Platsea was besieged by the Spartans, who re- 
minded them that the Spartan general, Pausanias, 
after the great victory in Plataea, had taken a solemn 
oath that the city should forever be secure from in- 
vasion. To this the Spartans replied that the oath 
could not be respected while Platasa was an ally of 
Athens, but the Platseans refused to desert Athens, 
and the siege continued two years, when the city was 
taken and all the inhabitants put to death. In the 
engagements that followed the Athenians were suc- 
cessful, and at last destroyed the Spartan fleet in the 



202 Ancient Empires. 

harbor of Pilos. A number of Spartan prisoners of 
rank were taken, and the Lacedaemonians, finding them- 
selves facing ruin, made earnest overtures for peace, 
but they were rejected. 

Sparta found, in the young Brasidas, a general of 
new and effective resources. For a while the cause 
of Sparta was in the ascendancy, but in the battle near 
Amphipolis, Brasidas was mortally wounded, and 
Cleon, the Athenian general, slain. The Athenians 
were defeated, and with the death of both the Athenian 
and Spartafi leaders, the principal obstacles to a gen- 
eral peace were removed, and in the spring of B. C. 
421 a treaty was made to cover a period of fifty years. 
This treaty was known as the "Peace of Nicias." 

The chief power at Athens was now shared between 
Nicias, who was a nobleman of invincible integrity and 
patriotism, and Alcibiades, the grandson of Pericles, 
who was as unprincipled and profligate as he was bril- 
liant and wealthy. Alcibiades was ambitious to 
achieve glory and power. Thinking to obtain both 
by a conquest of Sicily, he prevailed upon the Athe- 
nians, against the counsels of Nicias, to equip a fleet 
and send it against Syracuse, which had favored the 
Spartans. The most powerful and splendid arma- 
ment that Athens had ever raised in war was sent 
upon the expedition, with Alcibiades, Nicias and La- 
machus as chief commanders. The night previous to 
the departure of the fleet a series of outrages had 
been attempted upon the images of Mercury, and for 
some cause suspicion was made to rest upon Alcibi- 
ades. No greater crime could be charged upon an 



Greece. 203 

Athenian than disrespect to the national gods, and 
when Alcibiades was summoned home for trial he 
left the fleet, fled to the Peloponnesus and joined the 
Spartans. 

When Syracuse learned of the threatened attack it 
at once implored aid of Sparta, and the Spartans were 
considering what to do when Alcibiades appeared 
among them, burning with resentment against his na- 
tive country. He adopted the plain dress and severe 
manner of the Spartans, and by his skill, so artfully 
wrought upon their fears and their pride as to per- 
suade them not only to send supplies into Sicily, but 
to enter upon an invasion of Attica. Meanwhile, the 
siege of Syracuse was in progress, and when a power- 
ful Spartan force arrived at Syracuse under Glippus, 
Nicias sent to Athens for re-enforcements, which were 
sent to him under Demosthenes, a relative of the great 
orator. The Athenians were unable to make any 
progress in their siege of Syracuse. On the contrary, 
the battles fought by sea and land were generally un- 
favorable to Athens. At last they were forced to re- 
treat, when both Nicias and Demosthenes were taken 
prisoners and slain. The Athenians were dismayed at 
these disasters and the republic seemed all but lost. 
Their navy was destroyed, their treasury exhausted 
and their allies were in revolt, but the indomitable 
spirit of the people rose to increased vigor with each 
disaster. All their resources were now employed to 
retrieve their lost fortunes, and they would doubtless 
have been successful over the limited resources of 
Sparta if it had- not been that Sparta found help in 
Persia. Lysander, an accomplished Spartan, visited 



204 Ancient Empires. 

the satraps of Lydia and of the Hellespont and per- 
suaded them to furnish his people with the supplies 
necessary for them to carry on the war with their 
neighbors. The object of Persia was not to benefit 
Sparta, but to ruin Greece. 

During this time Alcibiades had not found the favor 
at Sparta which he had hoped to gain. He visited 
Sardis and won the friendship of Tissaphernes, the 
satrap of Lydia. His dejected and almost ruined 
country now saw that Alcibiades was the only Athe- 
nian who had the ability to extricate them from their 
difficulties. They, therefore, urgently invited him to 
return. He did so and was appointed general in chief 
of the Athenian forces. Under his guidance the for- 
tunes of Athens arose. Athenian supremacy was 
established in Ionia, and Thrace and Bysantium were 
taken. 

During the absence of Alcibiades on one of these 
expeditions and contrary to his orders, the Athenian 
fleet attacked the Spartan fleet commanded by Ly- 
sander at Notium, and was defeated. The news of 
this terrible disaster came to Athens about midnight. 
The citizens were aroused from their slumbers by the 
fearful tidings, and they thronged the public places in 
consternation and distraction. The situation of the 
city was desperate, as the sources from which the 
Athenians drew their provisions were now in the hands 
of the Spartans and starvation seemed to be before 
them. At the meeting of the Public Assembly early 
in the morning it was agreed to set free all prisoners 
except those guilty of the most unpardonable crimes 



Greece. 205 

in order to enable them to take part in the public 
defense. Debtors were released from their obligations 
and the citizens of all classes met in the acropolis and 
swore solemn oaths of mutual forgiveness and har- 
mony. The fall of the city was plainly only a question 
of time, as famine at once appeared within the walls. 
They offered to submit to terms of peace, provided 
ihe Spartans allowed them to retain their long walls 
and the port of Piranes, but the Spartan Ephors re- 
jected the conditions. Archestratus, one of the sena- 
tors, arose to speak in favor of accepting the Spartan 
terms, but he was at once seized and imprisoned by 
the indignant citizens, although hundreds were then 
dying from hunger. Three months of negotiation fol- 
lowed, during which the suffering of the people be- 
came so great that the Public Assembly decided to 
accept peace on any terms. 

The Thebans and Corinthians implored Sparta to de- 
stroy Athens, obliterate its name and to deport the 
entire population as slaves into foreign countries. At 
this time, while their enemy was helpless at their feet, 
the Spartans exhibited the only generosity ever known 
in their history. They declared that the city should 
neither be annihilated nor the people enslaved which 
had assisted to make so glorious the name of Greece. 
In' March, B. C. 404, Lysander took formal possession 
of Piranes and the Spartan army entered Athens. 
Thus, after twenty-seven years of war, Athens fell 
and Sparta, in alliance with Persia, was supreme in 
Greece. Free government was destroyed and oli- 
garchy set up in its stead. 



206 Ancient Empires. 

After the crushing defeat at Notium, which was the 
cause of the Athenian downfall, the panic-stricken 
people, without investigation, attributed the disaster 
to the mismanagement of Alcibiades, who was dis- 
missed from the command and exiled. He sought ref- 
uge with Pharnabazus, in Phrygia, where he was 
treacherously betrayed to the enraged Athenians by the 
Spartans. Soldiers were sent to take him. They ar- 
rived at night and set fire to his house. As he at- 
tenipted to escape the soldiers killed him with arrows, 
lie was left where he fell, and it is said that one 
woman alone remained who had sufficient regard for 
him to give his body decent burial. 

Sparta ruled Greece under the constitution and 
laws of Lycurgus, under which the Spartans had come 
to their present power, but the self-sacrificing spirit 
of public virtue had passed away and the corruptions 
of Persian influence gradually made of them a de- 
generate people. The authority at Athens was vested 
in an assembly of men known as the Thirty Tyrants, 
who were led by Critias, an unscrupulous politician, 
who had formerly been banished from the city and 
who now used his position for the gratification of his 
revenge. Everything was administered for Lacedse- 
xiionian interests, and scenes of profligacy and tyranny 
prevailed over all other considerations. 

It was during this time that there lived in Athens 
one individual whose character shines forth in the 
brightest luster of ancient times. Socrates, the teacher 
and philosopher, alone resisted the tyranny of vice 
with calmness and invincible integrity. Such a reign 



Greece. 207 

of debauchery and oppression could not long continue. 
A year had hardly passed when Thrasybulus, at the 
head of a number of his exiled countrymen, entered 
Athens and drove out the Thirty Tyrants. Pousanis, 
now king of Sparta, favored Thrasybulus, and he pro- 
cured the banishment of the Tyrants from Greece. 
The constitution of Solon was restored, but the better 
spirit of Greece had departed. This degenerate state 
of affairs may be inferred from the fact that the 
wisest and best man among them was condemned to 
death without cause. His death was procured by the 
Sophists, a sect whom Socrates justly despised. The 
verdict rendered by his judges -was that he must drink 
a cup of hemlock. His friends could easily have se- 
cured his escape by bribery, but he refused to owe his 
life to such means. While the poison was taking ef- 
fect he calmly conversed with his friends as long as 
he could speak. One of them spoke regretfully of the 
fact that he should die innocent. Socrates, with a 
smile, answered him : "Would you have me die guilty ?" 
Xenophon, his friend and pupil, says of him : "To me, 
most emphatically (being as I have described him, so 
pious, that he undertook nothing without the counsel 
of the gods ; so just, that he never injured any one — 
no, not even in the slightest degree — but was of the 
greatest service to those that associated with him; so 
temperate that he never preferred pleasure to virtue; 
so sensible, that he never erred in distinguishing the 
better from the worse, without requiring aid from any 
one else, but being" of himself perfectly competent to 
discriminate between them; so capable of discoursing 



208 Ancient Empires. 

upon and defining such matter, and so skilled in esti- 
mating the character of others and in convincing those 
who were in error and persuading them to the pursuit 
of virtue and all that was honorable and good), he 
seemed to be such an one as the very best and happiest 
man could be." 

Artaxerxes Mnemon (so called for his remarkable 
memory) succeeded his father, Darius Nothus, to the 
throne of Persia, and his brother, known as Cyrus the 
Younger, determined to dethrone him. Gathering to- 
gether a considerable army from disaft'ected portions 
of the empire and hiring thirteen thousand Greeks, 
Cyrus engaged Artaxerxes near Babylon, but was de- 
feated and slain. 

The army of Cyrus now went to pieces, leaving the 
remainder of the Grecian army, to the number of about 
ten thousand, in the most deplorable situation. All 
the Greek officers were invited to a conference with 
the Persian commander and were treacherously slain. 
The command of the Greeks then devolved upon a 
young officer named Xenophon, and under his com- 
mand began the most amazing retreat known in his- 
tory. They traversed a hostile country sixteen hun- 
dred miles in extent to the banks of the Euxine. Not 
less famous than the retreat of the ten thousand is 
the history of their adventures and sufferings written 
by Xenophon, the commander. Xenophon is not more 
renowned as a historian than as an essayist. He was 
a disciple of Socrates, and after his adventures in 
Asia he lived in retirement at Corinth, where he wrote 
seven books, and died B. C. 357. 



Greece. 209 

The Greek cities in Asia, having taken part with 
Cyrus in the rebehion against Artaxerxes, became the 
object of the Persian king's wrath, and Sparta engaged 
to defend them. This involved Greece again in a war 
with Persia. If Athens had added her strength, Greece 
might once more have defied the powers of Asia, but 
jealousy and bitter personal antagonisms so divided 
the two states that no union could be formed. At this 
time Persian gold began to play a principal part in the 
disintegration of Greek strength. Artaxerxes was 
thus enabled to secure a general league in Greece 
against Lacedsemonia. For some time Agesiliaus, king 
of Sparta, saved the honor of his country and won 
some important battles in Asia, but a naval defeat 
near Cnidus utterly destroyed the Lacedaemonian pow- 
er at sea. In order to escape total destruction, the 
Spartans were compelled to accept peace by sacrificing 
to Persia, B. C. 387, all their colonies in Asia, including 
the islands of Scyros, Lemnos and Imbros. 

THEBAN SUPREMACY. 

The Lacedaemonians, in order to secure themselves 
in power, :^raudulently took possession of the citadel 
of Thebes. Redress could not be obtained against this 
violation of the treaty of peace, and four hundred of 
the principal Thebans found themselves under the 
necessity of withdrawing from the town and going 
to Athens for protection. The liberty of Thebes 
seemed about to be destroyed and the ascend- 
ancy of Sparta appeared to be more firmly estab- 
lished, but Thebes was destined to crush the op- 



210 Ancient Empires. 

pressors to whom they had been subjected. Thebes 
possessed two men of uncommon merit. One of them, 
Pelopidas, was still young and the only heir of a 
wealthy family. He spent his fortune in assisting 
the needy and distressed, not as a demagogue, but as 
a philanthropist. The other was Epaminondas, who 
lived in honorable poverty. It is stated that he was so 
attached to truth, that he could not listen to a falsehood 
uttered even in jest. These able statesmen were not 
only devoted citizens, but skillful generals, and through 
their principles of patriotism, became the heroes of 
their age. So far from the envious jealousies that 
ruined the careers of so many others, these men were 
full of esteem for each other, and their intimacy lasted 
during their whole life, in which their eminent services 
and talents were united for the benefit of their native 
country. These two illustrious men not only deliv- 
ered Thebes from oppression, but, by their glorious 
achievements, raised it to the first rank among the 
cities of Greece. Pelopidas was one of the four hun- 
dred Thebans driven away by the Lacedaemonians' 
party obliged to take refuge in Athens. When Thrasy- 
bulus set out from Thebes to destroy the Tyrants of 
Athens, Pelopidas declared that he and his fellow 
exiles should at once go forth from Athens to destroy 
the Tyrants of Thebes. This was agreed upon, and 
they entered the city after dark in disguise and 
marched to the house where the Spartan party were 
feasting at a banquet. Just before the conspirators 
reached the house a messenger from Athens reached 
the banqueters and delivered a letter which he told 



Grreece. 211 

them demanded immediate attention, as it contained 
information of the most serious character. "Seri- 
ous affairs for tomorrow," exclaimed the first of 
the magistrates, and the letter was laid aside. 
It was no difficult task for the assailants to put the 
drunken revelers to the sword and seize the capital. 
The Thebans, encouraged by Epaminondas and Pelopi- 
das and assisted by Athenian and Boeotian troops, be- 
sieged the capital and compelled the Lacedaemonian 
garrison to surrender. A body of Spartan troops soon 
arrived for the assistance of the garrison, but it was 
too late, and Thebes was now ready to punish her 
enemy. War was declared and many small engage- 
ments followed, in which the Thebans was usually vic- 
torious. The Spartan, Antalcidas, one day seeing Ages- 
iliaus returning wounded from one of these engage- 
ments, said : "Truly, you are well paid for teaching 
the Thebans to fight when they have neither inclina- 
tion nor sufficient skill for it." However, the coming 
efficiency of the Theban troops is not to be attributed 
so much to what the Spartans taught them in these 
preliminary contests, but to the prudent generals who 
led them into the field, inured them to the labors of 
nnlitary life and inspired them to be courageous heroes. 
That Pelopidas was eminently qualified for the war- 
fare before him was shown at the battle of Tegyrae, 
which was preliminary to that of Leuctra. No other 
commander could lay claim to share in any of the honor 
of that day, and there was no pretext for the enemy 
to cover the shame of their defeat. As he was re- 
turning from Orchomelus to Tegyrae with some cav- 



^is Ancient Empires. 

airy, accompanied by some yoimg Thebans, known as 
the Sacred Band, he suddenly met a detachment of 
Lacedaemonians three times his own nmiiber. "We have 
fallen into the hands of the enemy," exclaimed a 
Theban. "And why," replied Pelopidas, "should we 
not rather say that they have fallen into ours?" In 
the struggle that followed the Spartans were put to 
flight with terrible slaughter. Never before had they 
been conquered in a regular fight. Heretofore they 
had not needed a number equal to their enemy in 
order to be successful, but here they fought an enemy 
hardly equaling one-third their own number and were 
disastrously defeated. The situation following this 
v.as such that both contestants determined to come to- 
gether in a decisive engagement. The army of the 
Lacedaemonians was commanded by King Cleombro- 
tus, and consisted of twenty-four thousand infantry, 
with sixteen hundred cavalry. The Thebans had just 
one-fourth that number in their ranks. Epaminondas 
was commander in chief and Pelopidas led the Sacred 
Band. The Theban force was arranged in a masterly 
manner. Epaminondas designed to throw his cavalry 
upon the Lacedaemonian phalanx, believing that if he 
could once break through, the rest of the Spartan army 
would give him but little trouble. According to this 
design, the cavalry began the battle. The Theban 
horsemen made an impetuous attack upon the Lacedae- 
monian cavalry and drove them in confusion back upon 
the infantry, thus throwing the soldiers into disorder. 
Epaminondas followed this advantage by throwing his 
heaviest battalions upon the Spartans commanded by 



Greece. 313 

King Cleombrotus. The Spartan king, in order to dis- 
tract Epaminondas, detached a body of his troops and 
gave it orders to fall upon the Theban flank, but Pelopi- 
das saw this movement, and with incredible speed 
dashed upon them with his Sacred Band, driving them 
back and thus falling upon the flank of the Spartans. 
This unexpected frustration of his plans, with its conse- 
quent advantage, was of powerful assistance to the 
struggle then going on in the center between Epami- 
nondas and Cleombrotus. The conflict was fierce and 
obstinate as long as the king lived, but presently he 
fell, and the Lacedaemonians, unable any longer to 
resist the crushing attacks af the enemey, were com- 
pelled to retreat. Although they succeeded in recov- 
ering the body of their king, they were unable to re- 
store their lost fortunes. It was the greatest defeat 
they had ever experienced. Four thousand of their 
bravest troops lay on the field, while the Thebans did 
not lose more than three hundred men. At this battle, 
B. C. 371, was given the fatal blow to the power of 
Sparta and to her superiority in Greece, which had 
been maintained for nearly five hundred years. 

The victory of the Thebans drew over to their side 
a number of allies who had heretofore sided with the 
Lacedaemonians. Thus, within the space of a year, 
their army was increased to seventy thousand men, of 
which the Thebans were only a twelfth part. Epami- 
nondas invaded Laconia and plundered the country 
as far as the river Eurotas. He pressed on to the sub- 
urbs of Sparta and challenged the Lacedaemonians to 
a new battle, though, in order not to dissatisfy the rest 



214 Ancient Empires. 

of Greece, he did not force them to a fight and did not 
enter their territory. However, he took every measure 
at hand to humble their pride and cripple their power. 
Epaminondas pointedly expressed this policy by saying 
that he had reduced the Spartans to the necessity of 
lengthening their monosyIla51es. This was a signifi- 
cant allusion to the peremptory character of their 
manners and language. Even in their decline they 
did not lay aside that style of language, which has 
become known as the "laconic." This is certain from 
the fact that when Philip, king of Macedon, wrote 
them a threatening letter, saying that "if he once en- 
tered their territory he would destroy everything in 
it with fire and sword," the Lacedaemonians answered 
with the single monosyllable, "If." But Epaminondas 
obliged them by his victories to alter their preten- 
sions and to have recourse to humble, as well as 
lengthy, discourses and negotiations. 

In all these achievements Pelopidas ably seconded 
Epaminondas, both o"f them gaining imperishable laur- 
els and attracting universal admiration. 

King Agesiliaus was shut up within the precincts of 
Lacedaemon and had the mortification to see his coun- 
try overrun by the Thebans and to acknowledge the 
refutation of his former boast that "No Spartan women 
ever saw the smoke of an enemy's camp." 

As an instance of the invincible devotion to civil 
law, when the Theban generals returned from their 
brilliant campaign, they were arraigned before a court 
of justice for having kept command of the troops a 
little longer than was permitted by law. Pelopidas did 



Greece. 215 

not defend his cause with much courage and he was, 
with much difficulty, acquitted by his judges. Epami- 
nondas, on the contrary* began to extol the things he 
had done in a strain of animated eloquence, declaring 
that he would die with pleasure if it should be stated 
in the verdict against him "that he was condemned 
to death by the Thebans for having obliged them to 
conquer the Lacedaemonians at Leuctra, for having 
by this single victory not only saved his nation from 
utter ruin, but even secured the liberties of all Greece, 
for having carried the victorious arms of Thebes to the 
very gates of Sparta, and made the Spartans tremble 
for their safety ; in fine, for having restored in their 
neighborhood the strength of the Messenians, their for- 
mer and irreconcilable enemies." His eloquent words 
made a verdict against him impossible, and the trial 
only added to the popular applause. 

Previous to the battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas had 
occasion to show his fearlessness and magnanimity be- 
fore an assembly of Grecians at Lacedsemon, which 
had come there to adjust the differences of the states. 
The chief question to be settled between them was 
whether Sparta should set free the cities of Laconia 
and Thebes the cities of Bceotia, in accordance with the 
treaty that had been made. Epaminondas was one of 
the ambassadors, and he saw that his fellow deputies 
were being awed by the presence of King Agesiliaus. 
Firm in the rectitude of his course, he made a speech 
in favor not only of the Thebans, but all Greece in 
general, showing that peace should be founded upon 
justice and equality. In order to turn the current of 



216 Ancient Empires. 

opinion that was flowing toward Epaminondas, Agesi- 
liaus asked him whether he thought it equitable for the 
cities of Boeotia to be declared independent. Epami- 
nondas hastily answered by asking in turn if Agesiliaus 
thought it right for the cities of Laconia to be declared 
free. The king of Sparta was incensed at this retort 
and started up, insisting that his question be first an- 
swered. Epaminondas calmly repeated his question. 
Exasperated at this, too glad of a pretext to declare 
war again, Thebes struck its name from the treaty. 
The war that followed was one full of disaster to the 
arrogant king of Sparta. 

A contemporary, extolling the merits of Epaminon- 
das, said that he had never seen a man who knew more 
and spoke less than Epaminondas. 

After the battle of Leuctra, when receiving the con- 
gratulations of his friends, he said : "My own joy 
arises from the anticipation of that which the news of 
my success will give to my father and mother." 

Pelopidas was appointed thirteen times governor of 
Boeotia, and he is justly regarded as one of the greatest 
men in Theban history. 

The Lacedaemonians were so humbled by their de- 
feat and so apprehensive of new dangers that they ap- 
plied for help to their greatest enemies, the Athenians 
and Persians. Ambassadors were sent to Artaxerxes 
Mnenon, king of Persia, from Athens and Sparta. To 
counteract this Thebes sent Pelopidas to the court of 
Persia. So great was the renown of this ambassador 
that the king received him in person with extraordi- 
nary honors. Pelopidas obtained a treaty from the 



Greece. 217 

Persian king, which guaranteed that Messenia should 
remain an independent state and that the Athenians 
should not be allowed to prey upon the Boeotian coast. 
Peace could not last long among the Grecian states, 
and the question now arose as to which should have 
the sovereignty of Peloponnesus. The sword was the 
only resort, and Epaminondas rapidly gathered his 
forces, entered the hostile territory and occupied a 
strong position at Tegea in order to attack the Man- 
tinians, who had been unfaithful to- Thebes. Epami- 
nondas was informed that Agesiliaus was coming with 
a force of Spartans to relieve the Mantinians. Tak- 
ing a different road from that on which Agesiliaus was 
advancing, Epaminondas attempted to strike a quick 
blow at Sparta. Happily Agesiliaus was informed in 
time to retrace his steps and reach the city before 
Epaminondas. Baffled in this attempt, the Theban re- 
turned to Mantinea, only to find the strong position he 
had left occupied by his enemies. Epaminondas now 
determined to strike a decisive blow. The Spartans and 
their allies were no less determined, also, that the 
coming battle should mean the complete overthrow 
of their enemy. The Lacedaemonians had twenty 
thousand infantry and two thousand cavalry, 
while the Thebans had thirty thousand infantry 
and three thousand cavalry. Epaminondas se- 
lected his choice troops, formed them in a 
dense column, and ordered what he believed to be 
an irresistible attack on the Lacedaemonian infan- 
try. The troops fought on each side with the great- 
est bravery. Both sides were resolved to perish to a 



218 Ancient Empires. 

man rather than yield victory to their rivals. When 
their spears were broken they rushed at each other in 
a hand-to-hand conflict with their swords. The car- 
nage was frightful on both sides, but Epaminondas, 
seeing that any extraordinary diversion might win 
the day, gathered around him the bravest and most 
determined heroes, whom he led in an attack so vig- 
orous that the Spartan phalanx wavered and was then 
broken. Animated by their general's example, the 
Theban troops assailed their enemy with desperate 
courage. In the decisive moment Epaminondas re- 
ceived a mortal wound in the breast from a javelin. 
He fell in the sight of all and the battle raged with re- 
doubled fury around the dying hero. One side at- 
tempted to take him prisoner, while the other as des- 
perately fought to rescue him from their grasp. The 
onslaughts of the Thebans could not be withstood and 
the Spartans gave way. However, so dearly was vic- 
tory bought that the only reason for considering the 
Thebans victorious was from the fact that they re- 
mained masters of the field. Epaminondas was car- 
ried into the camp, and the surgeons, after examin- 
ing the wound, declared that he would die as soon as 
the dart was extracted. Those present were over- 
whelmed with grief, but the only concern of Epami- 
nondas was the success of the battle. They showed 
him his shield, and he kissed it as a faithful com- 
panion of his dangers and exploits. When told that 
the Thebans were victorious, he said, with a placid 
countenance : "I have lived long enough since I die 
unconquered. I leave Thebes triumphant, proud 



Greece. 219 

Sparta humbled and Greece delivered from the yoke of 
servitude. I do not die without issue, as Leuctra and 
Mantinia are my two illustrious daughters, who will 
not fail to keep my memory alive and transmit it to 
posterity." After having said this he drew the javelin 
from his wound and immediately expired. 

The year before this, Pelopidas had died under very 
similar circumstances while leading an expedition 
against a Thessalian prince. 

MACEDONIAN SUrREMACY. 

In the time of Herodotus Macedon was only a small 
district in the vicinity of Mt. Pindus. Macedon or 
Macedonia had widely varying boundaries at different 
times. Its southeastern borders were upon the Aegian 
Sea. Previous to the time of Philip the history of 
Macedonia is involved in great obscurity. The Illyri- 
an tribe, from which the Macedonians sprung, differed 
in race and language from the Hellenes or Greeks. 
Herodotus, states that the Macedon monarchy was 
founded by Greeks from Argos ; although several Greek 
writers speak of twelve or fifteen Grecian princes who 
reigned in Macedon before the accession of Philip, yet 
that period was shrouded in deep obscurity. Philip 
appeared in the affairs of government B. C. 360, not 
as monarch, but as guardian of his elder brother's in- 
fant son. Philip had spent several years as a hostage 
in Thebes, where he had availed himself of every op- 
portunity to learn of his more advanced neighbors. 
He made a careful study of the Greek language and 
through his contact with Epaminondas and other The- 



230 Ancient Empires. 

ban generals, he became thoroughly acquainted with 
the military tactics of the Greeks. He also made him- 
self master of their statescraft, and, with the superior 
mental and physical endowments given him by nature, 
he became eminently fitted for the part which he took 
in the great game of politics and war. He did not 
have the masterful abilities of his distinguished son, 
Alexander the Great, or the powerful ambition and 
genius of Julius Caesar, nevertheless, he had the mind 
to grasp the condition of his times and to set in the 
ranks of surrounding states the foundation of do- 
minion and power. He had the good fortune to meet 
Olympias, daughter of the king of Epirus, who became 
ennobled in history as the mother of the great Alex- 
ander. 

While Philip was governing the country in behalf 
of his little nephew, his military successes enabled him 
to take upon himself the title of king, doubtless with 
the unanimous consent of all parties in the nation. 
Several Thracian towns were annexed to his dominions 
during this time. He reduced to subjection his north- 
ern and western neighbors. As policy and advantage 
dictated, he was the enemy or ally of the Southern 
Greeks. At length the Thessalian allies of Thebes 
in the sacred war against the Phocians, invited him to 
come to their assistance. This was an opportunity 
Vv^hich he had long coveted for a more active interfer- 
ence in the affairs of his southern neighbors. At first 
he was repulsed by the Phocians and their allies and 
was obliged to retreat to Macedonia, but he soon 
equipped a stronger force and defeated the enemy in 



Greece. 221 

a decisive battle. He would have marched at once to 
Phocis and terminated the war, but he found the Athe- 
nians drawn up in force at the Pass of Thermopylae, 
and, taking prudence from the disasters of former in- 
vaders at that pass, attempted to go no further. The 
Thebans clamored for him to continue until the Pho- 
cians were subjugated and the profaners of the na- 
tional religion adequately punished. 

His statesmanship now came to the assistance of 
his generalship, and, despite the burning orations of 
Demosthenes against him, he succeeded in lulling the 
suspicions of the Athenians with proposals of advan- 
tageous peace. After this he marched unopposed into 
Phocis and compelled the submission of the enemy. 
The Amphictyonic Council was now restored to its 
ancient authority. As it was under the control of 
Philip, the Phocians were doomed to lose their inde- 
pendence forever. Their cities were leveled to the 
ground, the population was not allowed to collect in 
villages of more than fifty inhabitants, and they were 
condemned to pay a yearly tribute of sixty talents 
until the whole amount should be restored which had 
been plundered from the temple. But as an evidence 
of the complete servility of the Amphictyonic Council, 
the two votes of the Phocians were transferred to the 
king of Macedon and his successors. In this way 
Philip secured that influence and control in Grecian 
affairs which paved the way for the overthrow of 
their liberty. From the beginning of Philip's career, 
he had kept steadily in view the purpose to secure sov- 
ereignty over all Greece and thus to prepare himself 



233 Ancient Empires. 

for the conquest of Persia, which was the chief object 
in all his ambitious plans. His intrigues in Attica and 
around the Peloponnesian states were for a time coun- 
teracted by the great eloquence of the Athenian De- 
mosthenes. But Philip continued his military opera- 
tions and had his powerful agents at every point of in- 
fluence, laboring to turn the Grecian power to his 
favor. No open rupture came between him and the 
Athenians until he was engaged in subduing the Gre- 
cian cities on the Thracian coast of the Hellespont. 
But the diplomacy of Philip enabled him to avoid re- 
sults injurious to his purpose. 

A little later Aeschines^ an orator second only to 
Demosthenes, persuaded the Amphictyonic Council to 
appoint Philip as its agent to punish Amphissa, the 
chief town of Locris, seven miles west of Delphi, 
which had been convicted of cultivating the sacred 
gardens of the temple, thus committing a sac- 
rilege similar to that done by the Phocians. 
Taking advantage of this opportunity to enmesh 
himself still deeper into the Grecian affairs, 
Philip passed rapidly with a powerful army through 
Thrace. The time was now ripe for him to throw off 
the mask of his intentions to add all Greece to his 
dominions. He seized and fortified Elateia, capital of 
Phocis, which was conveniently situated for com- 
manding the entrance into Boeotia. At this the The- 
bans and Athenians awoke from their dream of security 
and saw that the warnings of Demosthenes were com- 
ing true. The gold of Philip had won many people for 
friends in Thebes and Athens, so that when the army 



Greece. 323 

marched forth to battle against the Macedonian in- 
vaders there were disastrous dissensions in their ranks. 
The spirit of Grecian Hberty was now almost lost. 
Philip declared that the sacred war against Amphissa 
was his only object and that since the Thebans and 
Athenians had become the allies of the people whom 
the Amphictyonic Council had commanded him to pun- 
ish, he was justified in entering Boeotia with all his 
forces. 

The hostile armies, nearly equal in numbers, met 
at Chasronea. Philip led the attack in person, and 
his son, Alexander, commanded a wing of the Mace- 
donian army. There was no commander worthy of 
the Grecian name to lead the Thebans and Athenians 
against the military genius of Philip and his son. 
Though the loss of the Grecians was not large, the 
fortunes of the day were plainly against them, and 
this event destroyed the feeble confederacy which was 
endeavoring to stay the course of Philip. The Mace- 
donian king treated the Thebans with considerable se- 
verity, obliging them to ransom their prisoners and to 
cede to him a large portion of their territory. But he 
treated the Athenians with great leniency ; offering them 
terms of peace which they would not have dared to 
propose to him. 

In this state of affairs a congress of all the Gre- 
cian states was called to meet at Corinth for the pur- 
pose of preparing a new plan for the government of 
Greece. It was so subservient to the will of Philip that 
all his proposals were adopted without debate, and 
here appeared the predominating ambition of Philip's 



324 Ancient Empires. 

career. He proposed to invade Persia, and war was 
at once declared, with Philip as commander-in-chief 
of all the Grecian forces. 

Preparations were at once begun for the crowning 
enterprise of his life when he was assassinated at the 
marriage feast of his daughter to Alexander, king of 
Epirus, by a certain Pausanias, in revenge for some 
private wrong, and his army of more than two hun- 
dred thousand men was destined to be led into Asia 
by his renowned son. Diodorus makes the following 
summary of Philip's character : "He esteemed mere 
physical courage and physical strength in the field as 
among the lowest qualities of a superior officer. He 
set an almost exclusive value on military science as 
distinguished from personal prowess, and not less on 
the talent of conversing, persuading and conciliating 
those over whom a general might be appointed to pre- 
side. Upon these qualities he founded the only favor- 
able opinion which he entertained of himself ; for he 
was wont to remark that the merit of success in battle 
he could only share with those under him, whereas 
the victories he gained by argument, affability and 
kindness were all his own." 

Alexander was only twenty years of age when he 
succeded his father to the throne of Macedon. The 
Illyrians, Thracians and other northern tribes at once 
revolted, but Alexander overcame them with but little 
difficulty in a single campaign. While absent on this 
expedition the Grecian states, headed by Athens and 
Thebes, arose in rebellion, but with unparalleled rap- 
idity Alexander threw his forces into their midst. 



Greece. 225 

Thebes was taken by assault, six thousand of her war- 
riors slain and thirty thousand prisoners were sold into 
slavery. Taking warning by this the other Grecian 
states hastily submitted, and the Athenians sent an 
embassy to congratulate Alexander on his success. 
Accepting these excuses in full, the confederacy which 
had been made by Philip was renewed and the govern- 
ment of Greece and Macedon was delegated to Anti- 
pater, a Macedonian general, while Alexander set out 
for Asia with thirty-five thousand men on his amazing 
course of conquest. All his property at home was 
divided among his friends, and when asked by Perdic- 
cas what he had reserved for himself, replied : "My 
hopes." Alexander crossed the Hellespont in the 
spring of B. C. 334. A few days later he defeated an 
immense Persian army on the east bank of the Grani- 
cus, with a loss of only one hundred and fifteen men. 
In a short time he was undisputed master of all Asia 
Minor. In the following spring he marched eastward 
through Cappadocia and Cilicia. Near the small town 
of Issus at the 'northeastern extremity of the Mediter- 
ranean, he met another Persian army, numbering seven 
hundred thousand men and commanded in person by 
Darius, the king. As usual Alexander led his army 
in person and was always to be found in the thickest 
of the struggle. The prince was defeated with a loss 
of more than one hundred thousand men, while there 
seems to be no doubt that the loss of Alexander did 
not exceed five hundred. 

Darius fled at the beginning of the engagement 
and his family became prisoners of Alexander. 



236 Ancient Empires? 

The conqueror treated them with princely considera- 
tion. The wife of Darius, who was accounted the most 
beautiful woman in Asia, died from a sudden illness, 
and Alexander gave her a magnificent burial. When 
Darius heard of these things he lifted up his hands to 
heaven and prayed that if his kingdom were to pass 
from him it might be transferred to Alexander. 

The conqueror continued southward through Syria 
and Palestine. At Damascus he captured a vast 
amount of treasure belonging to the Persian king. 
Tyre made a desperate resistance, but was taken by 
storm after a vigorous siege of seven months, and 
thirty thousand of the inhabitants sold as slaves, B. C. 
332. All the cities of Palestine then fell into his hands 
except Gaza, which made an obstinate defense, and was 
at last as severely punished as Tyre. 

Alexander then proceeded to Egypt, which was 
eager to be freed from the Persian yoke. He concili- 
ated the priests by paying honors to the Egyptian gods, 
and after founding a city which he named Alexandria 
he prepared to move forward to the heart of the Per- 
sian Empire, where Darius was making vast prepara- 
tions to oppose him. He declared that the world could 
no more admit of two masters than of two suns. 
Twenty miles from the town of Arbela, the Persian 
monarch collected the remaining strength of his em- 
pire. His infantry was composed of more than one 
million men. He had forty thousand cavalry, and fif- 
teen elephants. Opposed to this host Alexander had, 
but forty thousand foot soldiers and seven thousand 
cavalry. However, they were perfectly disciplined 



Greece. S37 

and were led by a general who had never known de- 
feat. The Persians were better commanded and were 
more courageous than at Issus, but the Macedonian 
phalanx was irresistible^ and the field of battle became 
a scene of slaughter, in which many thousand Persians 
were slain. Darius escaped from the battle and fled 
to Ecbatana, the capital, where he had still a power- 
ful force equipped for the contest. Alexander marched 
on to Ecbatana and Darius retired to Bactria. Bessus, 
governor of Bactria, and Nabarzanes, a Persian lord, 
formed a conspiracy to sei-ze the king and secure the 
friendship of Alexander by betraying their master 
into the hands of the conqueror. Darius heard of the 
treason meditated against him, but would not credit the 
report. In consequence he was seized by the traitors, 
bound with golden chains and imprisoned in a covered 
cart, with which they fled from Bactria, carrying their 
king prisoner. Alexander pursued Darius to Bactria and 
there learned that the Persian monarch was in the cus- 
tody of Bessus and Nabarzanes, less than a day's march 
away. With his usual quickness Alexander started 
after the fugitives and soon overtook them. Although 
they were greatly superior in numbers to their pur- 
suers they immediately fled, and because Darius re- 
fused to follow them, Bessus and those who were about 
him discharged their arrows at the unfortunate prince, 
leaving him dying in the field. Not knowing whom 
the cart contained the Macedonians passed on in pur- 
suit of the fleeing Persians. Polystratus, a Mace- 
donian, not- long after coming to the place where 
Darius had been abandoned, heard the groans of a 



228 Ancient Empires. 

dying man. Approaching, he perceived that it was 
Darius, the king. The Persian king had enough 
strength left to call for water, which Polystratus 
brought him. Turning to the Macedonian, the king, in 
a soft voice said that in the deplorable state to which 
he had been reduced it was no small comfort to him 
that his last words would not be lost. He asked the 
soldier to give his thanks to Alexander for the kind- 
ness which had been shown to the royal family and to 
say that with his last breath he besought the gods to 
prosper Alexander and make him sole monarch of the 
world. He also said that it did not concern him so 
much as Alexander to pursue and bring to punishment 
the treacherous generals who had thus murdered their 
lawful sovereign. Taking Polystratus by the hand he 
said : "Give Alexander your hand as I give you mine 
and extend him in my name the only pledge I am able 
to give in this condition of my gratitude and affection." 
Alexander, coming a few moments later, bewailed the 
death of the king and caused his body to be interred 
with the highest honors. 

In the meantime the traitor Bessus, reduced to the 
last extremities, was bound by his own men and de- 
livered into the hands of the Macedonians. Alexander 
gave him to Oxyathres, brother of Darius, to be pun- 
ished as Oxyathres might think proper. 

With these victories of Alexander, came to an end, 
B. C. 329, the ancient empire of Persia, which, found- 
ed, by Cyrus, had existed two hundred and nine years. 



THE ROMANS. 

BUII,DING OP ROME. 

The peninsula of Italy had been gradually peopled 
by settlers from various countries, chiefly Greeks, 
Gauls and also, if we may believe the Latin historians 
and poets, by Trojans led by Aeneas. Among the de- 
scendants of the latter were reckoned the kings of 
Alba, in the province of Latium. One of them, called 
Procas, had two sons, Numitor and Amulius, the first 
of whom succeeded his father on the throne ; but Amu- 
lius, having obtained a strong party, dethroned his 
brother and reduced him to the condition of a private 
citizen. The more surely to deprive him of all hope of 
ever being re-established, he put to death Egestus or 
Lausus, the son of this unfortunate prince, and com- 
pelled Ilia or Rhea Sylvia, his daughter, to become a 
vestal virgin, that is, a priestess of the heathen goddess 
Vesta, in which state of life it was forbidden to marry. 

All these precautions of the usurper proved useless. 
Rhea Sylvia, having secretly married, gave birth to 
twin brothers, who were called Romulus and Remus. 
Amulius, it is true, in compliance with his former 
scheme of cruel policy, gave orders that they should 
be drowned in the Tiber ; but the helpless infants were 
saved through the commiseration of Faustulus, one of 
the royal shepherds, and nursed in his family. When 
they' had grown up to adolescence, he acquainted them 
with the secret of their birth. They immediately as- 

(229) 



230 Ancient Empires. 

sembled a band of valiant shepherds and hunters like 
themselves, added to them a body of their grand- 
father's adherents, and marching at their head against 
the usurper, slew him in his very palace, and replaced 
Numitor on the throne. 

After this bold achievement, the two brothers re- 
solved to build a city on the same spot on which they 
had been rescued from death, and so to perpetuate the 
memory of their dangers and their deliverance. They 
began speedily to accomplish their design ; but jealousy 
set them at variance with each other before its full 
execution. Having an equal right and urged on by 
equal ambition, they soon formed parties against each 
other, to decide who should possess the principal 
authority in their rising state ; a violent contest arose, 
and the result of this unnatural struggle was the death 
of Remus, who received a mortal wound, perhaps from 
the hand of Romulus himself. 

Freed from a rival, but probably guilty of fratricide, 
the surviving brother completed the building of the 
new city, and gave to it the name of Rome. To supply 
it with a sufficient number of inhabitants, he made it 
an asylum for every one whom guilt or misfortune 
might compel to fly from his native country. In this 
manner, there were soon assembled around him troops 
of insolvent debtors, fugitive slaves, discontented peo- 
ple, and friends of novelty. Such were the first in- 
habitants of Rome; and this motley band . of adven- 
turers laid the foundation of an empire which was one 
day to conquer the world, to astonish posterity at the 
mere recital of its stupendous achievements, and to 



The Romans, 231 

produce a countless number of profound politicians, 
able generals, accomplished orators and scholars, and 
great men of every description. 

All the circumstances just related are not equally 
certain; but there seems to be no doubt as to the 
principal facts. Rome was built, according to Varro, 
the four hundred and thirty-first year after the destruc- 
tion of Troy, and the third year of the sixth Olympiad ; 
which corresponds to the year B. C. 753. Some, it 
is true, place the foundation of the city a few years 
later; yet Varro's opinion is more commonly adopted. 

Romulus is said to have divided the people into 
three tribes, each consisting of ten curiae; and also 
into two orders of patricians and plebeians. The 
senate consisted of one hundred of the principal citi- 
zens; it was afterwards increased to two hundred 
members. Besides a guard of three hundred men to 
attend his person, the king was always preceded by 
twelve lictors, armed with axes bound up in a bundle 
of rods ; the duty of the lictors was to execute the laws. 
These wise regulations contributed daily to increase 
the strength of the new city; multitudes flocked to it 
from the adjacent towns, and women only were wanted 
to confirm its growing prosperity. Romulus, in order 
to supply this deficiency, invited the Sabines, a neigh- 
boring nation, to a festival in honor of Neptune; and 
while the strangers were intent upon the spectacle, a 
number of the Roman youths rushed in among them, 
and seized the youngest and most beautiful of the 
women, and carried them off by violence. 

A sanguinary war ensued, which had brought the 



233 Ancient Empires. 

city almost to the brink of ruin, when an accommoda- 
tion was happily effected through 1;he interposition of 
the Sabine women who had been carried off by the 
Romans. Romulus reigned thirty-seven years, and 
after his death received divine honors, under the name 
of Quirinus. 

On the death of Romulus, Numa Pompilius, a native 
of Cures, a Sabine city, was elected the second king 
of Rome. He softened the fierce and warlike disposi- 
tion of the Romans, by cultivating the arts of peace, 
and inculcating obedience to the laws and respect for 
religion. He built the temple of Janus, which was to 
be open during war and shut in time of peace. He 
died at the age of eighty, after a reign of forty-three 
years. 

Tullus Hostilius was the third king of Rome. His 
reign is memorable for the combat between the Horatii 
and Curiatii, which is said to have taken place during 
a war against the Albans. There were, at the time, 
in each army, three brothers of one birth ; those of the 
Romans called the Horatii, and those of the Albans, 
the Curiatti, all six remarkable for their strength, ac- 
tivity, and courage ; to these it was resolved to commit 
the fate of the two parties. Finally, the champions 
met in combat ; the contest was for some time obstinate 
and doubtful; victory at length declared in favor of 
Rome ; the three Curiatii were slain, and only one of 
the Horatii survived. By this victory the Romans 
became masters of Alba. Hostilius died after a reign 
of thirty-two years. 

After the death of the late monarch, Ancus Marcius, 



The Romans. 333 

the grandson of Numa, was elected the fourth king of 
Rome. He conquered the Latins, and suppressed the 
insurrections of the Vientes, Fidinates and Volsci. 
But his victories over his enemies were far less im- 
portant than his exertions in fortifying and embellish- 
ing the city; he erected a prison for malefactors, and 
built the port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. 
A.ncus died in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. 

Tarquinius Priscus, or Tarquin the elder, the son 
of a merchant of Corinth, next succeeded to the throne. 
His reign is chiefly distinguished for his triumph over 
the Sabines and Latins, and by the embellishment of 
the city with works of utility and magnificence ; he 
built the walls of hewn stone, erected the circus, found- 
ed the capitol, and constructed the sewers or aqueducts 
for the purpose of draining the city of the rubbish and 
superfluous waters. Tarquin was assassinated in the 
fifty-sixth year of his age, and in the thirty-eighth of 
his reign. 

Servius Tullius, who was the son of a female slave, 
and son-in-law of the late monarch, secured his elec- 
tion to the throne through the intrigues of Tanaquil, 
his mother-in-law. In order to determine the increase 
or diminution of his subjects, he instituted the census, 
by which, at the end of every fifth year, the names 
of citizens, number of dwellings and amount of prop- 
erty was ascertained. An expiatory sacrifice, called 
a "lustrum," was made; the period of five years thus 
came to be called a lustrum. 

From another incident came "the Olympiad." It 
was a period of four complete years, so called from the 



234 Ancient Empires. 

Olympic games, which the Greeks celebrated at the end 
of every four years at Olympia or Pisa, a city of 
Peloponnesus, in honor of Jupiter Olympian. These 
games, instituted by Hercules, were after some inter- 
ruption re-established by Iphitus (B. C. 884). How- 
ever, their regular return was not yet adopted as a sys- 
tem of chronology by the Greek historians ; the first 
Olympiad mentioned by them in the computation of 
time, was that in which Coroebus won the prize over 
all his competitors (B. C. 776). 

Servius had two daughters, of whom the elder was 
gentle and submissive, and the younger haughty and 
ambitious. In order to secure the throne, he married 
them to the two sons of Tarquin, the late king, whose 
names were Tarquin and Aruns, and whose different 
dispositions corresponded to those of his daughters. 
But he took care to cross their tempers by giving the 
elder to Tarquin, who was violent, and the younger, 
Tullia, to Aruns, who was mild, hoping they would 
correct each other's defects. But Tarquin and Tullia 
soon murdered their consorts, married each other, and 
then caused Servius to be assassinated. Tarquin 
usurped the throne, and Tullia, in her eagerness to 
salute him as king, is said to have driven her chariot 
over the dead body of her father. 

Tarquin, surnamed the proud, (in Latin, Tarquinius 
Superbus), began his reign by putting to death the 
chief senators, and governing in the most arbitrary 
manner; but, by his tyranny and cruelty, he soon dis- 
gusted all classes of his subjects. Sextus, his son, 
having entered the house of Collatinus, a nephew of 



The Romans. 235 

Tarquin, under the mask of friendship, did violence 
to his wife Lucretia, a woman distinguished for her 
beauty and domestic virtues. The unhappy Lucretia 
immediately sent for her husband and father, who 
came, bringing with them Junius Brutus, a grandson 
of Tarquin the Elder, and other friends. To them she 
related her mournful story, enjoining upon them to 
avenge her injury; and, being unable to survive her 
dishonor, plunged a dagger into her bosom, and ex- 
pired. 

Her corpse was carried to the public square ; the ven- 
geance of the people was roused ; and, by the strenu- 
ous exertions of Brutus, the senate pronounced a sen- 
tence of perpetual banishment agaist Tarquin and his 
family. The tyrant being expelled from his capital, 
and abandoned by his army, was never able to gain a 
readmission into the city; and the regal government 
was abolished, after having continued 244 years. 

REPUBLICAN ROME. 

The regal authority having been abolished, a re- 
publican form of government was established on its 
ruins. The supreme power was still reserved to the 
senate and people, but instead of a king, two magis- 
trates, called consuls, were annually chosen, with all 
authority, privileges, and ensigns of royalty. Brutus, 
the deliverer of his country, and Collatinus, the hus- 
band of Lucretia, were chosen the first consuls of 
Rome. 

But scarcely had the new republic began to exist, 
when a conspiracy was formed for its destruction. 



236 Ancient Empires. 

Some young men of the principal families of the state, 
who had been educated about the king, and had shared 
in all the luxuries and pleasures of the court, formed 
a party in Rome in favor of Tarquin, and undertook 
to re-establish the monarchy. Their design was for- 
tunately discovered before it could be carried into 
execution; and, surprising as it may appear, the two 
sons of Brutus were found among the number of the 
conspirators. Few situations could be more affecting 
than that of Brutus — a father and a judge, impelled 
by justice to condemn, by nature to spare, the children 
he loved. 

Being brought to trial before him, they were con- 
demned to be beheaded in his presence, while the 
father beheld the sad spectacle with unaltered coun- 
tenance. He ceased to be a father, as it has been beau- 
tifully observed, that he might execute the duties of the 
consul, and chose to live bereft of his children, rather 
than to neglect the public punishment of crime. 

Dangers from domestic disorders were soon added 
to those of war. Tarquin had induced the Latins to 
enlist in his cause, and approached the city with his 
army. The plebeians, being poor and oppressed with 
debt, complained of their grievances, and refused to 
aid in repelling the enemy, unless the senate would 
grant them relief, by remitting their debts to the rich. 
The consuls found their authority of no avail ; as the 
Valerian law gave to any condemned citizen the right 
of appealing to the people. 

An extraordinary measure was now necessary; and 
a new magistrate was created, styled dictator, who was 



The Romans. 237 

to continue in office only as long as the danger of the 
state required, never exceeding the space of six months, 
and was vested with absolute power. He was appointed 
only in cases of public exigency, when quick and de- 
cisive measures were necessary. He had authority to 
make peace and war, to levy taxes, to appoint all public 
officers, and to dispense with the laws, without con- 
sulting the senate or people. Titus Lartius, one of 
the consuls, being elevated to this high office, raised a 
large army, and, by his firmness and moderation, hav- 
ing restored tranquillity, resigned the dictatorship. 
War having been again excited by the Tarquins, 
Pothumius was appointed dictator; the Romans were 
completely victorious, and the sons of Tarquin were 
slain. 

After the death of the Tarquins, and the return of 
peace, Rome was disturbed by domestic dissensions, 
and the dispute between the creditors and debtors was 
again revived. On an alarm of war, the plebeians re- 
fused to take up arms in defense of the republic. 
Their language was, "Of what consequence is it to 
us whether our chains are forged by our enemies or 
our fellow-citizens. Let the patricians, since they 
alone have the reward of victories, encounter the 
dangers of war." At length, finding no relief from 
their oppressions, the whole army abandoned their 
officers, withdrew from Rome, and encamped upon 
Mons Sacer, about three miles from the city. Here 
they were soon joined by the greater part of the people. 

This resolute procedure had the desired effect. The 
senate, being alarmed, deputed ten of the most respect- 



238 Ancient Empires. 

able of their order, with authority to grant a redress. 
Menenius Agrippa, one of the senators, is said to have 
related, in his speech to the people, with great effect, 
the celebrated fable of the belly and the members. A 
reconciliation was brought about. The plebeians were 
freed from debt, and they were allowed to choose from 
their own order a number of magistrates, styled tri- 
bunes, who were to have a final veto on any legislation 
deemed injurious to them. 

Those magistrates were annually elected ; their num- 
ber, which at first was five, afterwards increased to ten. 
By this measure the aristocracy was restrained and the 
fury of the populace checked. At the same time two 
magistrates, styled sediles, were appointed, whose duty 
it was to assist the tribunes and take charge of the pub- 
lic buildings. 

During the late separation, agriculture having been 
neglected, a famine was the consequence the following 
season ; but the timely arrival of a large quantity of 
corn from Sicily prevented the evil consequences that 
were likely to ensue. At this time the resentment of 
the people was strongly excited against Coriolanus, 
who insisted that the corn should not be distributed 
until the grievances of the senate were removed ; for 
which proposition he was summoned by the tribunes 
to a trial before the people, and was condemned to 
perpetual banishment. He retired to the Volsci, and 
being appointed to the command of their army, he 
invaded the Roman territories and carried his devasta- 
tions to the very walls of the city ; but he was at length 
prevailed upon, by the earnest entreaties of his mother 
and his wife, to withdraw his army. 



The E,omans. 239 

The proposal of the Agrarian law," which had for its 
object the division of the land obtained by conquest 
equally among the people, proved a source of discord 
between the plebeians and patricians ; while the former 
repeatedly urged the measure, the latter as often stren- 
uously opposed the design; the state was in conse- 
quence thrown into violent dissensions. Through the 
influence of the tribune, Volero, a law was passed that 
the election of the tribunes should be made in the 
comitia, or public meetings of the people. By this law 
the supreme authority was taken from the patricians 
and placed in the hands of the plebeians, and the 
Roman government became a democracy. 

During the dissensions which grew out of the prop- 
osition for the Agrarian law, Quinctius Cincinnatus, 
a man eminent for his wisdom and virtue, and who had 
retired from public life, was created dictator; but 
scarcely had he restored tranquilhty to the state and 
resigned his office, than new dangers obliged him a 
second time to resume it. The Aequi, having invaded 
the territory of the Romans, enclosed the army of the 
consul Minutius, who had been sent to oppose them, 
in a defile between two mountains, from which there 
was no egress. Cincinnatus, having raised another 
army, placed himself at its head, and having defeated 
the Aequi, and having rescued the army of the consul 
from their perilous situation, returned in triumph to 
the city, and after holding the high office of dictator 
only for the space of fourteen days, he resigned its 
honors and again retired to labor on his farm. 

The Romans having no body of written laws, and 



240 Ancient Empires. 

justice being solely in the- hands of the rulers, who 
often decided oppressively, three commissioners were, 
therefore, sent to Greece, in order to procure the laws 
of Solon, and such others as were deemed useful in 
forming a suitable code. 

Upon the return of the commissioners, ten of the 
principal senators, styled decemvirs, were appointed 
to disgest a body of laws, and put them in execu- 
tion for one year. This was the origin of those cele- 
brated statutes known by the name of the Laws of the 
Twelve Tables, which formed the basis of Roman 
jurisprudence, and continued to be of the highest au- 
thority in the most flourishing times of the republic. 

The decemvirs were invested with absolute power ; 
and during the time for which they were appointed, all 
other magistrates were suspended. Each decemvir, by 
turn, presided for a day, and had the sovereign author- 
ity, with its insignia and fasces. They governed with 
so much moderation and equity during the first year, 
that they obtained a new appointment; but they soon 
became tyrannical; and two flagrant abuses of power 
by Appius Claudius, the leading member of their body, 
caused a speedy termination of the office. 

One of these crimes was his procuring the assassin- 
ation of Sicinius Dentatus, a Roman tribune, who, on 
account of his extraordinary valor and exploits, was 
styled the Roman Achilles ; the other was his villany 
with regard to Virginia, a beautiful young maiden, 
who had been betrothed to Icilius, formerly a tribune. 
Having seen her as she was going to a public school, 
and being inflamed with a lawless passion, he employed 



The Romans. 341 

a profligate dependent to .claim her as his own property, 
on the pretence of her being the daughter of one of 
his female slaves. 

He caused the claim to be brought for trial before 
himself, and pronounced an infamous decree, by which 
the innocent victim was torn from her parents, and 
placed within his own power. Virginius, her father, 
in order to prevent the dishonor of his daughter, 
plunged a dagger into her heart. Brandishing in his 
hand the bloody weapon, he exclaimed, "By this blood, 
Appius, I devote thy head to the infernal gods," and 
running wildly through the city, he roused the people 
to vengeance. Appius soon after died in prison by his 
own hand ; the other decemvirs went into exile ; the 
decemvirate, after having continued for three years, 
was abohshed; and the consuls were restored. 

In order to lighten the weight of their duties, two 
new magistrates were created, styled censors, to be 
chosen every fifth year. Their duty was to estimate 
the number and the estates of the people, to distribute 
them into their proper classes, to inspect the morals 
and manners of their fellow-citizens. The office was 
one of great dignity and importance, and was exercised 
for nearly one hundred years by the patricians, after- 
wards by men of consular dignity, and finally by the 
emperors. 

The senate, in order to avoid the evils which fre- 
quently arose from the people's refusing to enlist in the 
army, adopted the wise expedient of giving a regular 
pay to the troops. From this period, the Roman system 
of war assumed a new aspect. The senate had the 



342 A ncient Empires. 

army under its immediate control; the enterprises of 
the republic were more extensive, and its success more 
signal and important. As the art of war now became 
a profession, instead of an occasional employment, it 
was in consequence greatly improved, and from this 
period the Roman territory began rapidly to extend. 

The inhabitants of the city of Veii had repeatedly 
committed depredations on the Roman territories ; it 
was at length decreed by the Roman senate, that Veii 
should be destroyed, whatever it might cost. Accord- 
ingly, a siege was commenced, which continued with 
various success for ten years. At length, in order to 
give greater vigor to the operations, Camillus was 
created dictator, and to him was entrusted the sole 
management of the long protracted war. He caused 
a passage to be opened under ground which led into 
the very citadel, and giving his men directions how 
to enter the breach, the city was taken and destroyed. 
Camillus was honored with a splendid triumph, in 
which his chariot was drawn by four white horses ; 
but being afterwards accused of having appropriated 
a part of the plunder of Veii to his own use, indignant 
at the ingratitude of his countrymen, he went into vol- 
untary banishment. 

ROME TAKEN BY THE GAULS. — B. C. 39O. 

Camillus had scarcely gone into exile, when the in- 
habitants of Clusium, an Etrurian city, being besieged 
by a formidable army of Gauls, applied to the Romans 
for succor. Instead of troops, ambassadors were 
dispatched from Rome for the purpose of inter- 
ceding with the Gauls in behalf of the be- 



The Romans. 243 

sieged. But these deputies, all of them young 
men of a warlike disposition, not satisfied with their 
pacific commission, began to fight on the side of the 
Clusians, and in a sally killed a GauHsh chieftain. The 
Gauls were highly exasperated by this violation of 
professed neutrality; not receiving satisfaction, they 
abandoned the siege of Clusium, and marched toward 
Rome with threats of vengeance. They met the Roman 
army, which consisted of forty thousand men, near the 
small river Allia. This army, commanded by unskillful 
gejierals, and terrified by the yells, the stature and the 
multitude of these new foes, whose number amounted 
to more than seventy thousand, did not sustain even 
their first attack. Both officers and soldiers fled in 
every direction. It was rather a rout than a combat ; 
a rout not less disastrous than shameful, on account 
of the great slaughter which was made of the fugi- 
tives. 

The victorious Gauls, instead of closely pursuing 
their advantage, spent three days in gathering the 
spoils and taking unnecessary precautions against im- 
aginary dangers. This delay saved the Roman power 
from utter destruction. Those who were able to fight 
had time to withdraw into the citadel, with a supply of 
arms and provisions ; others made their escape to the 
neighboring towns ; and there remained in Rome only 
eighty senators or patricians, far advanced in years, 
who devoted th'emselves as so many victims to be im- 
molated for their country, and whom, in fact, the Gauls 
put to the sword, when they entered the city. After- 
wards, these barbarians fired the houses, and reduced 



244 Ancient Empires. 

them to ashes ; finally, they endeavored to storm the 
citadel. 

Being repulsed in the first assault, they made a 
second attack during the night, and were so far suc- 
cessful that some of their number reached the top of 
the battlements, without being heard by the sentinels, 
or even by the watch-dogs. Had the Gauls remained 
undiscovered one moment longer, the ruin of the 
Romans might then have been complete. In this ex- 
treme danger, the sudden gabbling of some geese and 
the flapping of their wings awoke Manlius, a patrician 
of consular dignity and extraordinary courage ; in an 
instant he sounded the alarm, ran to the rampart, and 
drove off the first barbarians whom he found ready to 
enter the citadel. The other Romans arrived, and 
easily overthrew the rest of the assailants, by precipi- 
tating them from the rock on which the citadel was 
built into the precipice below. 

Still this transient advantage could not have deliver- 
ed the country from its invaders, without the patriotic 
exertions of Camillus. This great man, now an exile, 
but generously prevailing upon himself to overcome 
his resentment and overlook the wrongs which he had 
suffered, hastened to assemble troops, whether Romans 
or allies, to fight the invaders. He came to the relief 
of the capitol at a very critical moment. The besieged, 
much weakened by famine, the natural consequence of 
a blockade of six months, had finally agreed to treat 
with the Gauls, and were actually about to pay a con- 
siderable sum for the preservation of their liberty. Be- 
fore this transaction was completed, Camillus arrived, 



The Romans. 245 

and perceiving the present disgraceful state of things, 
cried out that by steel alone, and not by gold, was 
Rome to be recovered from the hands of its enemies. 
He then charged with great vigor the astonished Gauls, 
obliged them to abandon their prey, and shortly after, 
in a decisive battle fought at a short distance from 
Rome, amply revenged the disaster that his country- 
men had suffered on the banks of the Allia. 

By this sudden change of fortune, the Roman power, 
which appeared on the point of being extinguished 
forever, was revived and Camillus received the grati- 
tude and praise he deserved as being the savior of his 
people, and the second founder of Rome. The citizens 
had decided to remove to Veii, but he succeeded in 
having them rebuild the city of Rome. 

Manlius was liberally rewarded for his heroism ; but 
at length, envying the fame of Camillus, he abandoned 
himself to ambitious views ; and being accused of aim- 
ing at sovereign power, he was sentenced to be thrown 
headlong from the Tarpeian rock. Thus the place, 
which had been the theater of his glory, became that 
of his punishment and infamy. 

The Romans next turned their arms against the 
Samnites, a race of hardy mountaineers, inhabiting 
an extensive tract in the southern part of Italy. This 
contest lasted upwards of 50 years, and was carried on 
by the Samnites with great valor and skill, though 
they were finally subdued. They defeated the Romans 
at Caudinse Furculse, near Caudium, and made their 
whole army pass under the yoke, formed by two spears 
set upright, and a third bound across them. This 



246 Ancient Empires. 

roused the spirit of revenge on the part of the Romans, 
who appointed Papirius Cursor dictator ; and the next 
year, under his command, they gained a victory over 
the Samnites, compelhng them, in turn, to undergo the 
same disgrace at Luceria ; and by the exertions of 
Fabius Maximus and Decius, they were finally sub- 
jugated. 

During the consulship of Manlius Torquatus, a war 
broke out between the Romans and Latins. In order 
to prevent confusion in time of action by reason of the 
similarity of the two nations, Manlius issued orders 
that death should be inflicted on any one who should 
leave his ranks. When the two armies were drawn 
out for battle, Metius, a Latin commander, challenged 
to single combat any Roman knight. Titus Manlius, 
the son of the consul, accepted the challenge, and slew 
his adversary ; and for this act he was beheaded by the 
stern order of his father. The Latins were vanquished, 
and submitted to the Romans. 

The Tarentines, who were the allies of the Samnites, 
sought the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, the greatest 
general of his age. He landed at Tarentum with an 
army of 30,000 men, and twenty elephants ; and the 
Romans, under the command of the consul Laevinus, 
not being accustomed to the mode of fighting with 
elephants, were at first defeated, with the loss of 15,000 
men ; that of Pyrrhus was nearly as great ; and he was 
heard to confess that another such victory would com- 
pel him to return to Epirus. His admiration of the 
heroism of his enemy drew from him the celebrated 
exclamation: ''O, with what ease could I conquer the 



The Romans. 247 

world, had I the Romans for soldiers, or had they me 
for their king!" 

In the progress of the war, Fabricius, who after- 
wards cornmanded the Roman army, received a letter 
from the physician of Pyrrhus, importing that for a 
proper reward he would poison the king. Fabricius, 
indignant at so base a proposal, gave immediate in- 
formation of it to Pyrrhus, who, admiring the gener- 
osity of his enemy, exclaimed : "It is easier to turn the 
sun from his course, than Fabricius from the path of 
honor" — and that he might not be outdone in mag- 
nanimity, he released all his Roman prisoners without 
ransom. 

Pyrrhus then withdrew his army from Italy, in order 
to assist the Sicilians against the Carthagenians ; but he 
again returned, and made a last effort near Beneven- 
tum, where he was totally defeated by Curius Denta- 
tus. He then withdrew to his own dominions, and the 
Romans, after having gained further victories over the 
Samnites, became masters of all Lower Italy. 

THE PUNIC WARS. 

The triumph which the Romans had obtained over 
Pyrrhus seemed to give assurance of success in any 
enterprise in which they should engage. The Mamer- 
tines, a people of Campania, obtained aid from the 
Romans in an unjustifiable attempt which they made 
to seize Messina, a Sicilian town allied to Syracuse. 
The Syracusans, at first, assisted by the Carthagenians, 
opposed this invasion ; but the former, more alarmed 
by the ambitious encroachments of the Carthagenians 
on Sicily, soon repented of this rash alliance, and joined 



248 Ancient Empires. 

the Romans in the purpose of expelling the Cartha- 
genians entirely from the island. In fact, the Sicilians 
seem to have had only the desperate choice of final sub- 
mission either to Rome or Carthage. They chose the 
former, as the alternative least dishonorable; the 
Romans had ever been their friends, the Carthagenians 
their enemies. 

Agrigentum, possessed by the Carthagenians, was 
taken, after a long siege, by the joint forces of Rome 
and Syracuse, and a Roman fleet, the first they ever 
had, and equipped in a few weeks, gained a complete 
victory over that of Carthage, at this time the greatest 
maritime power in the world, 260 B. C. These suc- 
cesses were followed by the reduction of Corsica and 
Sardinia. In a second naval engagement, the Romans 
took from the Carthagenians sixty of their ships of 
war, and now resolutely prepared for the invasion of 
Africa. The consul Regulus commanded the expedi- 
tion. He advanced to the gates of Carthage; and such 
was the general consternation, that the enemy proposed 
a capitulation. Inspirited, however, by a timely aid 
of Greek troops under Xantippus, the Carthagenians 
made a desperate effort, and defeating the Roman 
army, made Regulus their prisoner. But repeatedly 
defeated in Sicily, they were at length seriously desir- 
ous of a peace ; and the Roman general was sent with 
their ambassadors to Rome to aid the negotiation, 
under a solmen oath to return to Carthage as a prisoner 
should the treaty fail. It was rejected at the urgent 
desire of Regulus himself, who thus sacrificed his life 
to what he judged the interest of his country. 



The Romans. 249 

Lilyboeum, the strongest of the SiciHan towns be- 
longing to Carthage, was taken, after a siege of nine 
years. After some alternate successes, two naval 
battles won by the Romans terminated the war; and 
Carthage at last obtained a peace on the humiliating 
terms of abandoning to the Romans all her possessions 
in Sicily, the payment of 3200 talents of silver, the 
restitution of all prisoners without ransom, and a 
solemn engagement never to make war against Syra- 
cuse or her allies. The island of Sicily was now de- 
clared a Roman province, though Syracuse maintained 
her independent government, A. U. C. 511 and B. C. 
241. 

The peace between Rome and Carthage was of 
twenty-three years duration. The latter power was re- 
cruiting her strength, and meditated to revenge her 
losses and disgrace. The second Punic war began on 
the part of the Carthagenians, who besieged Saguntum, 
a city of Spain in alliance with the Romans. The 
young Hannibal took Saguntum, after a siege of seven 
months; the desperate inhabitants setting fire to the 
town, and perishing amidst the flames. Hannibal now 
formed the bold design of carrying the war into Italy. 
He provided against every difhculty, gained to his in- 
terest a part of the Gallic tribes, passed the Pyrenees, 
and finally the Alps, in a toilsome march of five months 
and a half from his leaving Carthagena, and arrived 
in Italy with 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse. 

In the first engagement the Romans were defeated, 
and they lost two other important battles a Trebia 
and the lake Thrasymenus. In the latter of these the 



250 Ancient Empires. 

consul Flaminius was killed, and his army cut to 
pieces. Hannibal advanced to Cannae in Apulia ; and 
the Romans there opposing him with their whole force, 
a memorable defeat ensued, in which 40,000 were left 
dead upon the field, and amongst these the consul 
Aemilius, and almost the whole body of the Roman 
knights. Had Hannibal taken advantage of this great 
victory, by instantly attacking Rome, the fate of the 
republic was inevitable; but he deliberated, and the 
occasion was lost. The Romans concentrated all their 
strength ; even the slaves armed in the common cause, 
and victory once more attended the standards of the 
republic. Philip, King of Macedon, joined his forces 
to the Carthagenians, but, defeated by Levinus, speed- 
ily withdrew his assistance. Hannibal retreated before 
the brave Marcellus. Syracuse had now taken part 
with Carthage, and thus paved the vvay for the loss of 
her own liberty. Marcellus besieged the city, which 
was long defended, by the inventive genius of Arch- 
imedes, but taken in the third year by escalade in the 
night. This event put an end to the kingdom of Syra- 
cuse, which now became a part of the Roman province 
of Sicily, A. U. C. 542, B. C. 212. 

While the war in Italy was prosperously conducted 
by the great Fabius, who, by constantly avoiding a 
general engagement, found the true method of weak- 
ening his enemy, the younger Scipio accomplished the 
entire reduction of Spain. Asdrubal was sent into 
Italy to the aid of his brother Hannibal, but was de- 
feated by the consul Claudius, and slain in battle. 
Scipio, triumphant in Spain, passed over into Africa, 



The Romans. 251 

and carried havoc and devastation to the gates of 
Carthage. Alarmed for the fate of their empire, the 
Carthagenians hastily recalled Hannibal from Italy. 
The battle of Zama decided the fate of the war, by the 
utter defeat of the Carthagenians. They entreated a 
peace, which the Romans gave on these conditions ; 
That the Carthagenians should abandon Spain, Sicily, 
and all the islands ; surrender all their prisoners, give 
up the whole of their fleet except ten galleys, pay 
10,000 talents, and, in future, undertake no war with- 
out the consent of the Romans, A. U. C. 552, B. C. 202. 

Everything now concurred to swell the pride of the 
conquerors, and to extend their dominion. A war with 
Philip of Macedon was terminated by his defeat; and 
his son Demetrius was sent to Rome as a hostage for 
the payment of a heavy tribute imposed on the van- 
quished. A war with Antiochus, King of Syria, ended 
in his ceding to the Romans the whole of the Lesser 
Asia. But these splendid conquests, while they en- 
larged the empire, were fatal to its virtues, and sub- 
versive of the pure and venerable simplicity of ancient 
times. 

The third Punic war began A. U. C. 605, B. C 149, 
and ended in the ruin of Carthage. An unsuccessful 
war with the Numidians had reduced the Carthageni- 
ans to great weakness, and the Romans meanly laid hold 
of that opportunity to invade Africa. Conscious of 
their utter inability to resist this formidable power, the 
Carthagenians offered every submission, and consented 
even to acknowledge themselves the subjects of Rome. 
The Romans demanded 300 hostages for the strict 



252 Ancient Empires. 

performance of every condition that should be enjoined 
by the senate. The hostages were given ; and the con- 
dition required was that Carthage itself should be razed 
to its foundation. Despair gave courage to this miser- 
able people, and they determined to die in the defense 
of their native city. But the noble effort was in vain. 
Carthage was taken by storm, its inhabitants massacred 
and the city burned to the ground, A. U. C. 607, B. C. 
146. 

The same year was signalized by the entire reduction 
of Greece under the dominion of the Romans. This 
was the era of the dawn of luxury and taste at Rome, 
the natural fruit of foreign wealth and an acquaint- 
ance with foreign manners. In the unequal distribution 
of this imported wealth, the vices to which it gave rise, 
the corruption and venality of which it became the 
instrument, we see the remoter causes of those fatal 
disorders to which the republic owed its dissolution. 

DISTURBANCES EXCITED BY THE GRACCHI, B. C. 133-I2I. 

The destruction of Numantia, and the close of the 
war against the revolted slaves in Sicily, coincided 
with the beginning of the civil wars in Rome. Hitherto 
the warmest contests between the patricians and ple- 
beians had been carried on, and their differences ad- 
justed without resorting to arms ; the animosity of the 
parties did not go beyond a certain limit, and either 
the condescension of the senate or the moderation of 
the people prevented the effusion of blood. But we 
have now reached the period when ambition, interest 
and jealousy, concealed under an apparent zeal for the 



The Romans. 353 

public good, prevailed over true patriotism, wise coun- 
sels and moderate government. Insidious and illegal 
attacks on one side, extreme measures and violent reme- 
dies on the other, gave rise to those bloody dissensions 
which, being often renewed with increased animosity, 
terminated in the downfall of the republic. 

There existed an ancient agrarian law forbidding any 
Roman to possess more than five hundred acres of 
land, and it was also an ancient custom to distribute 
a part of the conquered territories among the poor citi- 
zens. But these regulations had not been enforced for 
some centuries, and the wealthy families of Rome con- 
tinued with impunity to enlarge their estates, which 
they caused to be cultivated by slaves ; whereas the 
lower classes of the people had neither land enough 
nor sufficient lucrative employment to provide for their 
support. This inequality of fortune appeared to many 
persons an intolerable disorder, and one, too, peculiarly 
shocking in a republic. An attempt to suppress it by 
the revival of the agrarian law was made by two illus- 
trious brothers, Tiberius Gracchus and Caius Grac- 
chus, who, besides being allied by birth and matrimonial 
connections with the first families of Rome, were still 
more commendable for their talent, eloquence, courage 
and liberality. 

The Gracchi were the sons of Tiberius Sempronius 
Gracchus, who, though once raised to the censorship, 
twice to the consulate and twice honored with a tri- 
umph, yet derived still greater dignity from his virtues. 
There had always existed an opposition between him 
and the family of the Scipios ; but when both Publius 



254 Ancient Empires. 

and Lucius Scipio were persecuted by a powerful fac- 
tion at Rome, Sempronius Gracchus had the generosity 
to declare himself in their favor and openly to take 
their defense, even against the tribunes, his colleagues. 
It is believed that to his conduct on this occasion he 
was indebted for his subsequent alHance with their 
illustrious family ; for toward the close of the life of 
that Scipio who conquered Annibal, he married Cor- 
nelia, Scipio's daughter, thus throwing new luster 
around his own name. He died with a well deserved 
reputation for wisdom and virtue, and had a statue 
erected in his honor. 

Cornelia, being left a widow, devoted her whole 
attention to the management of her house and the edu- 
cation of her children. Two of them, Tiberius and 
Caius, the objects of the present section, so faithfully 
corresponded to the cares of their mother that, though 
they manifested the happiest genius and disposition, it 
was thought they owed still more to education than to 
nature. Hence they became the peculiar object of 
Cornelia's glory and pride, as she on one occasion 
forcibly manifested in a conversation with a Campanian 
lady. This lady having first, with much self-compla- 
cency, laid her diamonds, pearls and other precious 
jewels before the eyes of Cornelia, begged that she 
might see those of Cornelia herself. The latter, instead 
of answering, turned the conversation to some other 
object till her sons returned from school. When they 
entered the room of their mother, "These," said she to 
the Campanian lady, ''are my jewels and my orna- 
ments," words truly admirable and containing a most 
important instruction for all mothers and children. 



The Koiiaaiis. 355 

The two brothers became eminent orators, though 
there was a great dissimilarity both in their dehvery 
and their language. The delivery of Caius was ex- 
tremely energetic, and calculated to produce terror; 
that of Tiberius was milder, and tended to excite 
emotion. Likewise, the language of Caius was splendid 
and vehement ; that of Tiberius, chaste and persuasive, 
and this difference in their oratory seems to have 
arisen from the difference of their tempers. Tiberius 
was mild and gentle; Caius was high spirited and 
uncontrolled, insomuch that he would often, in address- 
ing the people, be carried away by the vehemence of 
his feelings, exalt his voice above the regular pitch, 
indulge in strong expressions, and, hurried along, as 
it were, by the fire of action, would move from one end 
of the rostrum to the other. To guard against excess 
he ordered his servant Licinius, a judicious man, to 
stand behind him during his harangues to the people, 
with a flageolet, and whenever he found him straining 
his voice or inclined to anger, to give him a softer key. 
This nvas sufficient to make him immediately abate the 
violence of both his action and language, and to resume 
a natural tone. 

Such were the illustrious brothers Tiberius and 
Caius Gracchus. Their natural dispositions and men- 
tal acquirements added to their virtues, liberality, Cour- 
age, temperance, etc., seemed to prognosticate in behalf 
of Rome a long series of great and important services. 
Unfortunately, these hopes were blasted by the nature 
of the course which they thought proper to adopt and 
which they too obstinately pursued. 



256 Ancient Empires. 

The design in behalf of the poor citizens had every 
appearance of humanity and equity; still, in other 
points of view, it implied a great abuse of power. It 
tended to nothing less than to undermine the general 
security of property by attacking possessions which, 
however unlawful they may have been in their origin, 
had quietly passed, through a long series of ages, from 
the former to the present owners by way of inheritance, 
dowry, or purchase made in good faith. To restore 
estates of this description to their original destination 
was manifestly to introduce confusion and trouble into 
the bosom of innumerable families, and strangely at- 
tempt to enrich one portion of the citizens at the 
expense of the other. Moreover, it cannot be denied 
that the Gracchi endeavored to carry out their views, 
sometimes by illegal means, at other times with strong 
signs of resentment and animosity against the senate. 
Hence no one should be surprised that, although they 
may be praised in some respects, for instance, for their 
disinterestedness and magnanimity, still they have been 
generally considered, even by the greatest men, as the 
leaders of a faction and the disturbers of public peace. 

Tiberius, the elder, being appointed plebeian tribune, 
lindertook with great vigor to effect the revival of the 
agrarian law, so untiring were his exertions, and so 
well was he supported by the favor of the people 
against the opposition of the wealthy citizens, that he 
at last carried his point, and had the law republished. 
Still his popularity, owing to some despotic measures 
to which he had resorted, began to be on the decline. 
The senate, at the same time, forgetting their usual 



The Romans. 257 

moderation, resolved to oppose violence to the practices 
of the tribune. They availed themselves, for this pur- 
pose, of the following circumstance : Tiberius, in a 
general assembly of the people, not being able on 
account of the noise to make himself heard, pointed 
with his hand at his head, to mean that his life was 
at stake. This gesture was mahciously interpreted 
by some to mean that he asked for a royal diadem. 
The senators, headed by Scipio Nasica and accompa- 
nied by their clients, ran forward to attack the unhappy 
tribune, notwithstanding the crowd by which he was 
surrounded. Tiberius fled, but having fallen and being 
overtaken in his flight, he was killed with three hun- 
dred of his partisans (B. C. 133). 

Caius Gracchus, who was nine years younger than 
Tiberius, had scarcely any share in these first disturb- 
ances ; he withdrew for a time from the public assem- 
blies, as though he had no desire to avenge the death 
and pursue the projects of his brother. But no sooner 
was he himself raised to the dignity of tribune than 
the people found in him a most zealous defender of 
their claims, and the senate a most formidable opponent 
of their privileges and authority. By the magic power 
of his eloquence Caius carried out whatever he proposed 
to the multitude, and by this means was enabled to 
make a variety of regulations more or less hostile to 
the patrician order, and some of them subversive of 
the established rules of government. 

The senate devised a singular means to weaken the 
amazing popularity and influence of this daring oflicer ; 
it consisted in making still greater concessions to the 



258 Ancient Empires. 

people than he had made. Seeing their efforts attended 
with success, they at length resolved to attack him 
by open force. The consul Opimius, his personal 
enemy, marched against him with a body of chosen 
and well armed men, and easily put the attendants of 
the tribune either to the sword or to a precipitate 
flight. Caius, abandoned by that very people to whose 
interests he had sacrificed every other consideration, 
was not offered so much as a horse to make his escape. 
When he saw his enemies almost upon him, not to fall 
into their hands, he ordered a slave to kill him; the 
slave obeyed, and immediately after ran his sword 
through his own body, and died near his master. In 
this terrible affray there perished with Caius about 
three thousands persons, whose dead bodies were 
thrown into the Tiber (B. C. 121). 

Such was the unhappy end of Tiberius and Caius 
Gracchus, whom a mistaken zeal rendered the disturb- 
ers of their country, whereas they might have been 
its best defenders and brightest ornaments. Together 
with them disappeared their projects and laws, but, 
as the sequel will show, not the sad example of those 
dissensions and violent contests which their proceed- 
ings had occasioned. 

THE JUGURTHINE WAR. 

The profligacy and corruption of the senate were 
manifest in the events that led to the Jugurthine war, 
which began to embroil the republic soon after the fall 
of the Gracchi. The Numidian king Micipsa, the son 
of Massinissa, had divided his kingdom, on his death- 
bed, between his two sons, Hiempsal and Adherbal, 



The Romans. 259 

and his nephew Jugurtha ; but the latter, resolving to 
obtain possession of the whole inheritance, soon mur- 
dered Hiempsal and compelled Adherbal to take refuge 
in Rome. The senate, won by the bribes of the usurper, 
decreed a division of the kingdom between the two 
claimants, giving to Jugurtha the better portion; but 
the latter soon declared war against his cousin, and, 
having gained possession of his person, put him to 
death. The senate could no longer avoid a declaration 
of war against Jugurtha; but he would have escaped 
by an easy peace, after coming to Rome to plead his 
own cause, had he not there murdered another relative, 
whom he suspected of aspiring to the throne of Nu- 
midia. (B. C. 109.) 

Jugurtha was allowed to return to Africa; but his 
briberies of the Roman senators were exposed, and the 
war against him was begun anew. After he had 
defeated several armies, Metellus drove him from his 
kingdom, when the Numidian formed an alliance with 
Bacchus, king of Mauritania, but their united forces 
were successively routed by the consul Marius, for- 
merly a lieutenant in the army of Metellus, but who, 
after obtaining the consulship, had been sent to termi- 
nate the war. Eventually the Moorish king betrayed 
Jugurtha into the hands of the Romans, as the price 
of his own peace and security (B. C. 106), and the 
captive monarch, after gracing the triumph of Marius, 
was condemned to be starved to death in prison. 

SOCIAL WARS. 

About this period the Roman republic was again 
convulsed by domestic dissensions. The Italian states 



260 Ancient Empires. 

being frustrated in their aims of gaining the freedom 
of Rome, by the intrigues of the senate, resolved to 
gain by force what they could not obtain as a favor. 
This gave rise to the Social War, which continued to 
rage for several years, and is said to have involved the 
destruction of three hundred thousand men. It was 
finally terminated by granting the rights of citizenship 
to all who should lay down their arms and return to 
their allegiance. 

This destructive war being concluded, the Romans 
next turned their arms against Mithridates, king of 
Pontus, the most powerful monarch of the East, who 
caused eighty thousand Romans, who dwelt in the cities 
of Asia Minor, to be massacred in one day. In this 
celebrated contest, styled the Mithridatic war, the 
Roman generals, Sylla, Lucullus and Pompey, succes- 
sively bore a distinguished part. The chief command 
in the war against Mithridates was first given to Sylla, 
a man of great talents and an able general ; but Marius, 
who had been distinguished for his warlike genius and 
exploits for nearly half a century, now in the seven- 
tieth year of his age, had the address to get the com- 
mand of the army transferred from Sylla to himself. 

Sylla, on receiving this intelligence, finding his troops 
devoted to his interest, marched directly to Rome, 
which he entered as a place taken by storm, and pro- 
ceeding to the senate, compelled that body to issue a 
decree declaring Marius to be a public enemy. Marius, 
in the meantime, fled to Africa, and Sylla, after some 
delay, entered upon the Mithridatic war. Cinna, a 
partisan of Marius, having collected an army in his 



The Romans. 261 

favor, recalled the veteran warrior, and they soon pre- 
sented themselves at the gates of Rome. Marius 
refused to enter the city, alleging that having been 
banished by a public decree, it was necessary that 
another should authorize his return. But before the 
form of annulling the sentence of his banishment was 
concluded he entered the city at the head of his guards 
and ordered a general massacre of all who had ever 
been obnoxious to him. Many of those who had never 
ofif ended him were put to death; and at last even his 
own officers could not approach him without terror. 
He next proceeded to abrogate all laws made by his 
rival, and associated himself in the consulship with 
Cinna. Thus having gratified his two favorite passions, 
vengeance and ambition, his bloody career was short- 
ened by death, and shortly afterward Cinna was cut off 
by assassination. 

In the meantime these accounts were brought to 
Sylla, who was pursuing a victorious campaign against 
Mithridates; but having concluded a peace with that 
monarch, he hastened to Rome to take vengeance on 
his enemies. Having entered the city, he caused a more 
horrible massacre than that which took place under 
Marius. He ordered eight thousand men, who sur- 
rendered themselves to him, to be put to death, while 
he, without being the least discomposed, harangued 
the senate. The day following he proscribed forty 
senators and sixteen hundred knights ; and after a short 
interval forty senators more, with a much greater num- 
ber of the most distinguished citizens of Rome. He 
then caused himself to be proclaimed perpetual die- 



262 Ancient Empires. 

tator, but after having held it for nearly three years, 
to the astonishment of all mankind, he resigned the 
dictatorship, and retired to the country, where he 
passed the remainder of his days in the society of 
licentious persons and the occasional pursuit of liter- 
ature. After his death a magnificent monument was 
erected to him, with the following epitaph written by 
himself : "I am Sylla, the Fortunate, who, in the 
course of my life, have surpassed both friends and 
enemies; the former in the good, and the latter in the 
evil I have done them." In the civil war between 
Marius and Sylla one hundred and fifty thousand 
Roman citizens are said to have been sacrified, includ- 
ing among them more than two hundred senators and 
persons of distinguished rank. 

While the commonwealth was yet distracted by the 
old dissensions, new calamities were added. Spartacus, 
a Thracian, who had been kept at Capua as a gladiator, 
placing himself at the head of an army of slaves, laid 
waste the country, but was at length totally defeated 
by Crassus, with the loss of forty thousand men. A 
few years after this event a conspiracy, which threat- 
ened the destruction of Rome, was headed by Catiline, 
a man of courage and talents, but of ruined fortune 
and of the most profligate character. A plan was con- 
certed for a simultaneous insurrection throughout Italy. 
Rome was to be set on fire in many places, and, in the 
general confusion, Catiline was to enter the city at 
the head of a powerful force, murder the senators and 
usurp the reins of government. Cicero, the great 
Roman orator, discovered the plot and Catiline was 
defeated and killed in the battle that followed. 



The Romans. 263 

FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. 

Julius Csesar now rose into public notice. Sylla 
dreaded his abilities and ambition, and had numbered 
him among the proscribed. "There is many a Marius," 
said he, "in the person of that young man." He had 
learned prudence from the danger of his situation, 
and tacitly courted popularity, without that show of 
enterprise which gives alarm to a rival. While Pompey 
and Crassus contended for the command of the repub- 
lic, Csesar, who knew, that by attaching himself to 
either rival, he infallibly made the other his enemy, 
showed the reach of his talents by reconciling them, 
and thus acquiring the friendship of both. From 
favor to their mutual friend, they agreed to a partition 
of power, forming thus the first triumvirate, B. C. 60. 

These men, by their united influence, were now able 
to carry all their measures, and they virtually usurped 
the powers of the senate, as well as the command of 
the legions. Csesar first obtained the office of consul 
(B. C. 59), and, when the year of his consulship had 
expired, was made commander of all Gaul (B. C. 58), 
although but a small portion of that country was then 
under the Roman dominion. Crassus, whose avarice 
v/as unbounded, soon after obtained the command of 
Syria, famed for its luxury and wealth, while to 
Pompey were given Africa and Spain, although he left 
the care of his provinces to others, and still remained 
in Italy. 

In the course of eight years Csesar conquered all 
Gaul, which consisted of a great number of separate 
nations, twice passed the Rhine into Germany, and 



364 Ancient Empires. 

twice passed over into Britain and subdued the south- 
ern part of the island. Hitherto Britain had been 
known only by name to the Greeks and Romans ; and 
its first invasion by Csesar, in the year 55 B. C, is the 
beginning of its authentic history. The disembarkation 
of the Romans, somewhere on the eastern coast of 
Kent, was firmly disputed by the natives ; but stern 
discipline and steady valor overawed them, and they 
proffered submission. A second invasion in the ensu- 
ing spring was also resisted; but genius and science 
asserted their usual superiority, and peace and the 
withdrawal of the invaders were purchased by the 
payment of tribute. In the meantime Crassus had 
fallen in Parthia (B. C. 52), thus leaving but two 
masters of the Roman world ; but Pompey had already 
become jealous of the greatness of Csesar's fame, and 
on the death of Julia, the wife of Pompey and daughter 
of Csesar, the last tie that bound these friends was 
broken, and they became rivals and enemies. Pompey 
had secured most of the senate to his interests ; but 
Csesar, though absent, had obtained, by the most lavish 
bribes, numerous and powerful adherents in the very 
heart of Rome. Among others, Mark Antony and 
Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, favored his 
interests. 

WARS OF CAESAR AND POMPEY. 

The ambition of Csesar and of Pompey had now 
evidently the same object ; and it seemed to be the only 
question in those degenerate times to which of these 
aspiring leaders the republic should surrender its lib- 



The Romans. 265 

erties. The term of Csesar's government was near 
expiring; but to secure himself against a deprivation 
of power he procured a proposal to be made in the 
senate by one of his partisans, which wore the appear- 
ance of great moderation, namely, that Csesar and 
Pompey should either both continue in their govern- 
ments, or both be deprived of them, as they were 
equally capable of endangering the public liberty by 
an abuse of power. The motion passed, and Csesar 
immediately offered to resign, on condition that his 
rival should do so; but Pompey rejected the accommo- 
dation ; the term of his government had yet several 
years' duration, and he suspected the proposal to be 
a snare laid for him by Csesar. He resolved to main- 
tain his right by force of arms, and a civil war was 
the necessary consequence. The consuls and a great 
part of the senate were the friends of Pompey. Caesar 
had on his side a victorious army, consisting of ten 
legions, and the body of the Roman citizens, whom 
he had won by his liberality. Mark Antony and 
Cassius, at that time tribunes of the people, left Rome 
and repaired to Csesar's camp. 

The senate, apprehensive of his designs, pronounced 
a decree, branding with the crime of parricide any 
commander who should dare to pass the Rubicon (the 
boundary between Italy and the Gauls) with a single 
cohort, without their permission. Csesar infringed the 
prohibition, and marched straight to Rome. Pompey, 
to whom the senate committed the defense of the state, 
had no army. He quitted Rome, followed by the con- 
'suls and a part of the senate, and endeavored hastily 



266 Ancient Empires. 

to levy troops over all Italy and Greece; while Gesar 
tritimphantly entered the city amidst the acclarnations 
of the people, seized the public treasury, and possessed 
Inmself of the supreme authority without oppc sition. 
Having secured the capital of the empire, he set out to 
take the field against his enemies. The lieutenants of 
Pompey had possession of Spain. Caesar marched 
thither, and subdued the whole country in the space 
of forty days. He returned victorious to Rome, where, 
in his absence, he had been nominated dictator. In 
the succeeding election of magistrates he was chosen 
consul, and thus invested, by a double title, with the 
right of acting in the name of the republic. Pompey 
had by this time raised a numerous army, and Caesar 
was anxious to bring him to a decisive engagement. 
He joined him in Illyria, and the first conflict was of 
doubtful issue ; but leading on his army to Macedonia, 
where they found a large reinforcement, he gave battle 
to Pompey in the field of Pharsalia, and entirely de- 
feated him. Fifteen thousand were slain and twenty- 
four thousand surrendered themselves prisoners to the 
victor, A. U. C. 705, B. C. 49. 

The fate of Pompey was miserable in the extreme. 
With his wife, Cornelia, the companion of his misfor- 
tunes, he fled to Egypt in a single ship, trusting to the 
protection of Ptolemy, whose father had owed to him 
his settlement on the throne. But the ministers of this 
young prince, dreading the power of Caesar, basely 
courted his favor by the murder of his rival. Brought 
ashore in a small boat by the guards of the king, a 
Roman centurion, who had fought under his own ban- 



The Romans. 267 

ners, stabbed him, even in the sight of CorneHa, and, 
cutting off his head, threw the body naked on the sands. 
Caesar pursued Pompey to Alexandria, where the 
head of that unhappy man, presented as a grateful 
offering, gave him the first intelligence of his fate. He 
wept, and turned with horror from the sight. He 
caused every honor to be paid to his memory, and from 
tliat time showed the utmost beneficence to the parti- 
sans of his unfortunate rival. 

The sovereignty of Egypt was in dispute between 
Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra. The latter, though 
married to her brother and joint heir by their father's 
will, was ambitious of undivided authority ; and Caesar, 
captivated by her charms, decided the contest in favor 
of the beauteous queen. A war ensued, in which 
Ptolemy was killed, and Egypt subdued by the Roman 
arms. In this war the famous library of Alexandria 
was burned to ashes, B. C. 48. A revolt of the Asiatic 
provinces, under Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, 
was signally chastised, and the report conveyed by 
Caesar to the Roman senate in three words* Veni, vidi, 
vici. The conqueror returned to Rome, which needed 
his presence ; for Italy was divided, and the partisans 
of Pompey were yet extremely formidable. His two 
sons, with Cato and Scipio, were in arms in Africa. 
Caesar pursued them thither, and proceeding with 
caution till secure of his advantage, defeated them in a 
decisive engagement at Thapsus. Scipio perished in 
his passage to Spain. Cato, shutting himself up in 
Utica, meditated a brave resistance ; but finally, seeing 
no hope of success, he determined not to survive the 



268 Ancient Empires. 

liberties of his country, and fell deliberately by his 
own hand. Mauritania was now added to the number 
of the Roman provinces, and Caesar returned to Rome 
absolute master of the empire. 

From that moment his attention was directed solely 
to the prosperity and happiness of the Roman people. 
He remembered no longer that there had been opposite 
parties, beneficent alike to the friends of Pompey as to 
his own. He labored to reform every species of abuse 
or grievance. He introduced order into every depart- 
ment of the state, defining the separate rights of all 
its magistrates, and extending his care to the regulation 
of its most distant provinces. The reformation of 
the calendar, the draining the marshes of Italy, the 
navigation of the Tiber, the embellishment of Rome, 
the complete survey and delineation of the empire, 
alternately employed his liberal and capacious mind. 
Returning from the final overthrow of Pompey's party 
in Spain, he was hailed the father of his country, was 
created consul for ten years, and perpetual dictator. 
His person was declared sacred, his title henceforth 
Imperator, A. U. C. 709, B. C. 45. 

The Roman republic had thus finally, by its own 
acts, resigned its liberties. They were not extinguished, 
as Montesquieu has well remarked, by the ambition 
of a Pompey or of a Caesar. If the sentiments of Caesar 
and Pompey had been the same with those of Cato, 
others would have had the same ambitious thoughts ; 
and since the commonwealth was fated to fall, there 
never would have been wanting a hand to drag it to 
destruction. Yet Csesar had by force subdued his 



The Romans. 269 

country ; he therefore was an usurper ; and had it been 
possible to restore the liberties of the republic, and 
with these its happiness, by the suppression of that 
usurpation, the attempt had merited the praise, at least, 
of good design. Perhaps so thought his murderers ; and 
thus, however weak their policy, however base and 
treacherous their act, with many they will ever find 
apologists. They madly dreamed an impossible issue, 
as the event demonstrated. 

A conspiracy was formed by sixty of the senators, 
at the head of whom were Brutus and Cassius, the 
former a man beloved of Caesar, who had saved his 
life and heaped upon him numberless benefits. It was 
rumored that the dictator wished to add to his numer- 
ous titles that of king, and that the Ides of March 
was fixed on for investing him with the diadem. On 
that day, when taking his seat in the senate house, he 
was suddenly assailed by the conspirators ; he defended 
himself for some time against their daggers, till, seeing 
Brutus amongst the number, he faintly exclaimed, 
"And you, too, my son !" and, covering his face with his 
robe, resigned himself to his fate. He fell, pierced 
by twenty-three wounds, A. U. C. 711, B. C. 43. 

The Roman people were struck with horror at the 
deed ; they loved Caesar, master as he was of their lives 
and liberties. Mark Antony and Lepidus, ambitious 
of succeeding to the power of the dictator, resolved 
to pave the way by avenging his death. The people, 
to whom Caesar, by his testament, had bequeathed a 
great part of his fortune, were penetrated with grati- 
tude to his memory. A public harangue from Antony 



270 Ancient Empires. 

over the bleeding body, exposed in the forum, inflamed 
them with the utmost indignation against his mur- 
derers, who must have met with instant destruction 
had they not escaped with precipitation from the city. 
Antony profited by these dispositions, and the avenger 
of Caesar, of course the favorite of the people, was in 
the immediate prospect of attaining a similar height 
of dominion. In this, however, he found a formidable 
competitor in Octavius, the grand-nephew and the 
adopted heir of Csesar, who at this critical moment 
arrived in Rome. Availing himself of these titles, 
Octavius gained the senate to his interest, and divided 
with Antony the favor of the people. The rivals soon 
perceived that it was their wisest plan to unite their 
interests ; and they admitted Lepidus into their associa- 
tion, whose power, as governor of Gaul, and immense 
riches, gave him a title to a share of authority. Thus 
was formed the second Triumvirate, the effects of 
whose union were beyond measure dreadful to the 
republic. The Triumviri divided among themselves 
the provinces, and cemented their union by a deliberate 
sacrifice made by each of his best friends to the venge- 
ance of his associates. Antony consigned to death his. 
uncle Lucius, Lepidus his brother Paulus and Octavius 
his guardian Toranius, and his friend Cicero. In this 
horrible proscription three hundred senators and three 
thousand knights were put to death. 

Octavius and Antony now marched against the con- 
spirators, who had a formidable army in the field in 
Thrace, commanded by Brutus and Cassius. An en- 
gagement ensued at Philippi, which decided the fate of 



The Romans. 271 

the empire. Antony was victorious, for Octavius had 
no miHtary talents ; he was destitute even of personal 
bravery; and his conduct after the victpry was stained 
with that cruelty which is ever the attendant of cow- 
ardice. Brutus and Cas^ius escaped the vengeance of 
their enemies by a voluntary death. Antony now 
sought a recompense for his troops by the plunder of 
the East. While in Cilicia he summoned Cleopatra to 
answer for her conduct in dethroning an infant brother 
and in openly favoring the party of Brutus and Cassius. 
The queen came to Tarsus, and made a complete con- 
quest of the Triumvir. Immersed .in luxury, and 
intoxicated with love, he forgot glory, ambition, fame, 
and everything for Cleopatra; and Octavius saw this 
frenzy with delight, as the preparative of his rival's 
ruin. He had nothing to dread from Lepidus, whose 
insignificant character first drew on him the contempt 
of his partisans, and whose folly, in attempting an 
invasion of the province of his colleague, was punished 
by his deposition and banishment. 

Antony had in his madness lavished the provinces 
of the empire in gifts to his paramour and her children. 
The Roman people were justly indignant at these 
enormities; and the divorce of his wife Octavia, the 
sister of his colleague, was at length the signal of 
declared hostility between them. An immense arma- 
m.ent, chiefly naval, came to a decisive conflict near 
Actium, on the coast of Epirus. Cleopatra, who at- 
tended her lover, deserted him with her galleys in the 
heat of the engagement ; and such was the infatuation 
of Antony that he abandoned his fleet and followed 



272 Ancient Empires. 

her. After a contest of some hours they yielded, to 
the squadron of Octavius, A. U. C. 723, B. C. 31. 
The victor pursued the fugitives to Egypt; and the 
base Cleopatra proffered terms to Octavius, including 
the surrender of her kingdom and the abandonment 
of Antony. After an unsuccessful attempt at resist- 
ance he anticipated his fate by falling on his sword. 
And Cleopatra soon after, either from remorse, or more 
probably from mortified ambition, as she found it was 
Octavius' design to lead her in chains to Rome to 
grace his triumph, had courage to follow the example 
of her lover, and put herself to death by the poison of 
an asp. Octavius returned to Rome, sole master of 
the Roman empire, A. U. C. ^2^., B. C. 27. 

ROMAN EMPERORS. 

By the death of Antony, Ocatavius, now styled 
Augustus, became sole master of the Roman empire. 
Having returned in triumph to Rome, he endeavored, 
by sumptuous feasts and magnificent shows, to oblit- 
erate the impressions of his former cruelty, and re- 
solved to secure, by acts of clemency and benevolence, 
that throne, the foundation of which was laid in blood. 
Having established order in the state, Augustus found 
himself agitated by different inclinations, and consid- 
ered for some time whether he should retain the 
imperial authority or restore the republic. By Agrippa 
he was advised to pursue the latter course; but, fol- 
lowing the advice of Maecenas, he resolved to retain the 
sovereign authority. 

Augustus, in his administration, affected an appear- 



The Romans. 278 

ance of great moderation and respect for the public 
rights, and, having gained the affections of the people 
and his soldiers, he endeavored by every means to 
render permanent their attachment. As a general he 
Avas more fortunate than eminent; though the general 
character of his reign was pacific, still several wars 
were successfully carried on by his lieutenants ; he 
seemed to aim at gaining a character by the arts of 
peace alone; he embellished the city, erected public 
buildings and pursued the policy of maintaining order 
and tranquillity in every portion of his vast dominions. 
During his reign the temple of Janus was closed for 
the first time since the commencement of the second 
Punic war, and third time from the reign of Numa. 

Augustus having accompanied Tiberius in his march 
into Illyria, was taken dangerously ill, and on his return 
died at Nolla, near Capua in the seventy-sixth year of 
his age, after an illustrious* reign of forty- four years. 

Augustus was possessed of eminent abilities, both 
as a warrior and a statesman ; but the cruelties and 
treachery exercised by him while a member of the 
triumvirate have left an indelible stain upon his char- 
acter, and rendered it doubtful whether the virtues 
which he manifested in after-life' sprung rather from 
policy than from principle. The emperor and his chief 
minister, Maecenas, were both eminent patrons of learn- 
ing and the arts ; and the Augustan age of Rom^an liter- 
ature has been justly admired by all succeeding ages. 
Among those who distinguished his reign were the 
celebrated poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid, with Livy, 
the historian. But the most memorable event which 



274 Ancient Empires. 

took place during the reign of Augustus was the birth, 
of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, which happened, 
according to the best authorities, in the twenty-sixth 
year of his reign, and four years before the period com- 
monly assigned for the Christian era. 

Augustus, previous to his death, had nominated 
Tiberius to succeed him in the empire. The new 
emperor, at the commencement of his reign, exhibited 
a show of moderation and clemency ; but he soon threw 
off the mask and appeared in his natural character as 
a cruel and odious tyrant. The brilliant success of his 
nephew Germanicus, in Germany, excited the jealousy 
of Tiberius, who recalled him to Rome, and is supposed 
to have caused his death by poison. Having then taken 
into his confidence Sejanus, a Roman knight, who 
became the minister of his cruelty and pleasure, he 
retired to the island of Capreae, and abandoned himself 
to the most infamous debaucheries. Sejanus, now pos- 
sessed of almost unlimited power, committed the most 
fearful cruelties against the citizens of Rome ; Nero 
and Drusus, the sons of Germanicus, were starved 
to death in prison; Sabinus, Gallus, and other distin- 
guished persons were executed upon slight pretenses ; 
but his career was of short duration. Being accused 
of treason, he was suddenly precipitated from his ele- 
vation and executed by order of the senate ; his body 
was afterward dragged ignominiously through the 
streets. 

This event seemed only to increase the emperor's 
rage for cruelty. Now weary of particular executions, 
he gave orders that all the accused should be put to 



The Romans. 275 

death without further examination. When one Carnu- 
Hus had killed himself to avoid the torture, "Ah," 
exclaimed Tiberius, "how has that man been able to 
escape me?" 

In his seventy-eighth year and the twenty-second 
of his reign, he was strangled by one of his favorites. 

Four years before occurred the crucifixion of Christ, 

Tiberius named as his heir Caligula, son of Germani- 
cus, in union with Tiberius, son of Drusus and grand- 
son of the emperor. Because of the love of the people 
for Germanicus the senate set aside the claims of 
Tiberius and conferred the undivided empire upon 
Germanicus. The beginning of his reign was auspi- 
cious for clemency and good policy. 

He restored the privileges of the Comitia and abol- 
ished arbitrary prosecutions for crimes of state. But, 
tyrannical and cruel by nature, he substituted military 
execution for legal punishment. The provinces were 
loaded with the most oppressive taxes, and daily confis- 
cations filled the imperial coffers. The follies and 
absurdities of Caligula were equal to his vices ; and 
it is hard to say whether he was most the object of 
hatred or of contempt to his subjects. He perished 
by assassination in the fourth year of his reign and 
twenty-ninth of his age, A. U. C. 794, A. D. 42. 

Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, was saluted emperor 
by the praetorian guards, who had been the murderers 
of his nephew. He was the son of Octavia, the sister 
of Augustus ; a man of weak intellects, and of no edu- 
cation ; yet his short reign was marked by an enterprise 
of importance. He undertook the reduction of Britain ; 



276 Ancient Empires. 

and, after visiting the island in person, left his generals, 
Plautius and Vespasian, to prosecute a war which was 
carried on for several years with various success. The 
Silures, or inhabitants of South Wales, under their 
king, Caractacus (Caradoc), made a brave resistance, 
but were finally defeated, and Caractacus led captive 
to Rome, where the magnanimity of his demeanor pro- 
cured him respect and admiration. 

The civil administration of Claudius was weak and 
contemptible. He was the slave even of his domestics, 
and the dupe of his infamous wives, Messalina and 
Agrippina. The former, abandoned to the most shame- 
ful profligacy, was at length put to death, on suspicion 
of treasonable designs. The latter, who was the daugh- 
ter of Germanicus, bent her utmost endeavors to secure 
the succession to the empire to her son, Domitius 
Aenobarbus, and employed every engine of vice and 
inhumanity to remove the obstacles to the accomplish- 
ment of her wishes. Having at length prevailed on 
Claudius to adopt her son, and confer on him the title 
of Czesar, to the exclusion of his own son Britannicus, 
she now made room for the immediate elevation of 
Domitius, who then assumed the name Nero Claudius, 
by poisoning her husband. Claudius thus died in the 
fifteenth year of his reign and sixty-third of his age. 

Nero had enjoyed the advantage of a good education 
under the philosopher Seneca, and at the commencement 
of his reign, he pursued an excellent plan of govern- 
ment, which was laid down by Seneca and Burrhus 
(the latter of whom was the prefect of the praetorian 
guard), and which held out the prospect of better 



The Romans. 277 

times ; but he soon got rid of his counselors, abandoned 
himself to rioting and licentiousness, gained a notoriety 
for profligacy and cruelty above that of even all his 
predecessors, and rendered his name proverbial in all 
succeeding ages as a detestable tyrant. Among the 
numerous victims who suffered death by his cruelty 
were his mother Agrippina, his wives Octavia and 
Poppoea, Seneca and Burrhus, also Lucan, the poet. 

He is charged with having caused the city of Rome 
to be set on fire, in mere wantonness, that it might 
exhibit the representation of the burning of Troy ; and 
he stood upon a high tower that he might enjoy the 
scene. The conflagration continued nine days, and a 
great part of the city was burnt to ashes. In order to 
avert from himself the public odium of the crime, he 
charged it upon the Christians, who had now become 
numerous in Rome, and commenced against them a 
m.ost dreadful persecution, in which St. Paul was be- 
headed. 

Nero, who rendered himself no less contemptible by 
his follies and extravagances than hateful by his crimes, 
was too odious a monster to be long endured. A con- 
spiracy, headed by Vindex in Gaul, and Galba in Spain, 
hurled him, at length, from the throne. Galba, in a 
speech, recapitulating his crimes, said : "What enor- 
mity has been too great for him? Is he not stained 
with the blood of his father, his mother, his wife, his 
preceptors, of all those who, in the senate, the city, or 
the provinces, were distinguished by birth, riches, cour- 
age, or virtue? The blood of these innocent victims 
cries for vengeance; and since we are possessed of 



278 Ancient Empires. 

arms and of power of using them, let us disdain to 
obey, not a prince, but an incendiary, a parricide, a 
singer, and an actor." The senate having passed sen- 
tence against him, he avoided falling into their hands 
by a voluntary death, in the fourteenth year of his reign 
and the thirty-second of his age. 

After the death of Nero, Galba was declared emperor, 
both by the senate and by the legions under his com- 
mand. He was esteemed a man of courage, talents 
and virtue, and had acquired a high reputation in the 
command of armies in the provinces ; but he was now 
in the seventy-second year of his age, and he soon 
became unpopular by his severity and parsimony, and 
by the abuses practiced by his favorites. He adopted 
for his successor the virtuous Piso, a measure which 
gave offense to Otho, his former favorite, who excited 
a rebellion against him, and caused the death both of 
the emperor and of Piso, after a reign of only seven 
months. Tacitus says of him that, "Had he never as- 
cended the throne, he would have been thought, by all, 
capable of reigning." 

Otho was then proclaimed emperor; but he found a 
formidable rival in Vitellius, by whose lieutenants he 
was defeated, and he slew himself after a reign of 
ninety-five days. Vitellius, being saluted as emperor, 
is said to have proposed Nero for his model, and 
rendered himself odious to the people by his tyranny 
and profligacy. Vespasian, who was now at the head 
of the Roman army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor 
by his troops. Rome was taken by one of his generals, 
and Vitellius was assassinated before he had completed 
the first year of his reign. 



The Romans. 379 

Vespasian was declared emperor by the unanimous 
consent of the senate and the army ; and on his arrival 
at Rome he was received with the greatest joy. He 
had risen by his merit from a mean origin ; was distin- 
guished for his affability, clemency and firmness ; and 
reigned with high popularity for ten years, promoting 
the welfare of his subjects. He restored order, built 
the celebrated amphitheater or Coliseum, whose ruins 
still attest its grandeur, cherished the arts, and patron- 
ized learned men, among whom were Josephus, the 
Jewish historian ; Quintilian, the orator, and Pliny, the 
naturalist. 

Titus, the son of Vespasian, is known in history 
chiefly for his destruction of Jerusalem. 

After a tremendous siege of six months the city was 
taken and razed to the ground, verifying the predic- 
tions of our divine Savior that "not a stone should 
remain upon a stone." According to Josephus, the 
number of Jews that perished during the siege exceeded 
one million, and the captives amounted to almost a 
hundred thousand. Vespasian having reigned ten 
years, beloved by his subjects, died at Campania, in 
the seventieth year of his age, A. D. 79. 

The late emperor was succeeded by his son Titus, 
who, on account of his amiable virtues, justice and 
humanity, obtained the appellation of the "Delight of 
mankind." Recollecting one evening that he had done 
no act of beneficence during that day, he exclaimed, 
"My friends, I have lost a day." His reign is mem- 
orable for the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, 
which overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum and 



280 Ancient Empires. 

Pompeii, and caused the death of Pliny, the naturalist, 
whose curiosity led him too near the scene. Titus died 
in the third year of his reign and in the forty-first of 
his age; but strong suspicion was entertained that he 
was poisoned by his brother Domitian who succeeded 
to the throne, A. D. 8i. 

Domitian was another Nero in his character. He 
caused himself to be worshiped as a god ; many of the 
most illustrious men of Rome fell victims to his cruelty. 
He banished the philosophers from the city, and raised 
a dreadful persecution against the Christians. He 
frequently shut himself up in his chamber, and amused 
himself by catching flies and piercing them with a 
bodkin, hence his servant being asked if any one was 
with the emperor, replied, "No not even a fly." His 
reign was signalized by the success of the Roman arms 
in Britain, under the command of Agricola, a distin- 
guished general who had been sent to the country by 
Vespasian, and conquered all the southern portion of 
the island. Domitian was assassinated at the instiga- 
tion of his wife, in the fifteenth year of his reign, 
A. D. 96. He was the last of those emperors called the 
twelve Caesars ; Julius Caesar, the dictator, being con- 
sidered the first ; although Augustus was the first who 
was generally styled emperor. 

After the death of Domitian Nerva was elected to the 
throne. He was a man distinguished for virtue and 
clemency, but did not possess sufficient energy to sup- 
press the disorders of the empire ; and having adopted 
Trajan for his successor he died after a short reign of 
sixteen months. 



The Romans. 28i 

Trajan, a native of Seville, in Spain, is esteemed one 
of the greatest and most powerful of the Roman em- 
perors ; he was equally distinguished for affability, 
clemency, and munificence. On presenting the sword 
to the prefect of theprsetorian guard he made use of 
these remarkable words : "Make use of it for me, if I 
do my duty; if not, use it against me." The senate 
conferred on him the title of Optimus, the Best, and 
that body was long accustomed to salute every newly 
elected emperor with this expression : "Reign fortu- 
nately as Augustus, and virtuously as Trajan." 

Trajan was one of the greatest generals of his age; 
he enlarged the boundaries of the empire, subdued the 
Parthians, brought under subjection Assyria, Arabia 
Felix and Mesopotamia ; and in commemoration of his 
victory over the Dacians, he erected a pillar at Rome, 
which bears his name, and which still remains as one 
of the most remarkable monuments of that city. 

He was a munificent patron of literature, and in his 
reign Pliny, the younger ; Juvenal, and Plutarch flour- 
ished. Although this prince was much celebrated for 
his virtues, still his character has been tarnished by a 
want of equity with regard to the Christians who were 
persecuted during his reign. He died of apoplexy, in 
the sixty-third year of his age and the twentieth of his 
reign, A. D. 117. 

Trajan was succeeded by Adrian, his nephew, who, 
in some respects, was the most remarkable of the 
Roman emperors. His administration was generally 
equitable and beneficent; he was highly skillful in all 
the accomplishments of the age; he composed with 



283 Ancient Empires. 

great beauty, both in prose and verse ; he pleaded at the 
bar, and was one of the best orators of his time. Deem- 
ing the hmits of the empire too extensive, he abandoned 
the career of conquest, and devoted himself to the arts 
of peace. He spent thirteen years in visiting the prov- 
inces of the empire, and during his progress he re- 
formed abuses, relieved his subjects from many bur- 
dens and rebuilt various cities. While in Britain he 
caused a turf wall to be erected across the island from 
Carlisle to Newcastle in order to prevent the incursions 
of the Picts. 

He rebuilt the city of Jerusalem and changed its 
name to Aelia Capitolina. In consequence of an in- 
surrection of the Jews, he sent against them a pow- 
erful army which destroyed about one thousand of 
their towns and nearly six hundred thousand of these 
unfortunate people; he then banished all those who 
remained and by a public decree, forbade them to re- 
turn within view of their native soil. He passed sev- 
eral wise regulations, among which was a law prohib- 
iting masters to kill their slaves, as had been before 
allowed, but ordained that they should be tried by the 
laws enacted against capital offenses. Adrian named 
as his successor Titus Antoninus, and died in the 
twenty-second year of his reign, and the sixty-second 
of his age. 

Titus Antoninus, more commonly called Antoninus 
Pius, had a reign of twenty-three years, which was 
marked by few striking events ; but it will ever be dis- 
tinguished in the Roman annals for the public and pri- 
vate virtues which exalted his character. It was his 



The Romans. 383 

favorite maxim, that "he would rather save the life of 
one citizen, than put to death a thousand enemies." 

This excellent sovereign adopted for his successor 
his son-in-law, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, surnamed 
the Philosopher. He is esteemed the best model of 
pagan virtue among the Roman emperors ; and "ap- 
peared," says an ancient author, "like some benevo- 
lent deity, diffusing around him universal peace and 
happiness." He was attached, both by nature and edu- 
cation, to the Stoic philosophy, which he admirably 
exemplified in his life, as well as illustrated in his 
work, entitled "Meditations." 

Distinguished as the two Antonines were for jus- 
tice and humanity, yet the persecution of the Chris- 
tions was permitted, in some degree, during their 
reigns. It was to the former of the two that Justin 
Martyr presented his first "Apology for Christianity" ; 
and the Roman army under the latter experienced, by 
means of a thunder storm, a remarkable deliverance, 
which has been represented by many as miraculous, 
and which gave to a legion of Christians, then serving 
under Aurelius, the name of the Thundering Legion. 
The- name of the wife of each of these emperors was 
Faustina, and both of them were noted as women of 
the most abandoned character. 

Aurelius died in the nineteenth year of his reign, and 
the fifty-ninth of his age. He was the last of the sov- 
ereigns styled "The five good emperors" ; and the glory 
and prosperity of the Roman people seemed to perish 
with him. From this time we behold a succession of 
sovereigns, who, with few exceptions, were either weak 



384 Ancient Empires. 

or vicious; an empire grown too large, sinking by its 
own weight, surrounded by barbarous and successful 
enemies without, and torn by ambitious and cruel fac- 
tions within ; the principles of the times wholly cor- 
rupted ; and patriotism, virtue, and literature, grad- 
ually becoming almost extinct. 

With the reign of Aurelius, the prosperity of the 
empire ceased; and from the accession of his son 
Commodus, its decline may be dated. A more strik- 
ing contrast never was presented than in the characters 
of the father and son. Aurelius had taken him to aid 
in command against the barbarians ; and on his death, 
despite good advice, Commodus purchased a peace, 
that he might give himself up to the voluptuous pleas- 
ures of Rome. There he became a foul and loath- 
some debauchee ; and, outraging all the honorable feel- 
ings of the Romans, he fought as a gladiator, in public 
spectacles, for the amusement of the vulgar. 

Conspirators put him to death and raised Pertinax, 
prefect of the city, to the imperial throne. The prae- 
torian guards murmured at the elevation of a man of 
whose virtue they were assured, and who, educated in 
the school of Aurelius, was little likely to yield to 
their disorderly demands, or shower upon them the 
profuse liberality of Commodus. His attempt to re- 
form the financial system increased their hatred, and 
in less than three months from the time they swore 
allegiance, a sedition broke out in the camp. Two or 
three hundred of the guards rushed in arms to the 
palace, where Pertinax, securely relying on his irmo- 
cence and their oath, was inhumanly murdered. A 



The Romans. 285 

most disgraceful scene succeeded. Returning to the 
camp with the head of Pertinax borne as a trophy, the 
guards now offered the Roman world to the highest 
bidder. 

The wealth of Didius Julianus, a vain and voluptuous 
senator, enabled him to meet the demands of the ra- 
pacious praetorians, who immediately completed the 
contract, proclaimed him emperor, took the oath of 
allegiance, and escorting him to the palace, surrounded 
him with the ensigns of imperial dignity. The obse- 
quious senate, though attached to Pertinax, yielded 
to the occasion, and ratified the election of the praeto- 
rians ; but the indignant legions of Britain, of Illyricum, 
and Syria, each proclaimed its respective general as 
more worthy of the empire. Severus, who was in Illy- 
ricum, at the head of hardy and disciplined forces, ac- 
customed to contests with the warlike barbarians of 
the north, advanced toward Rome. By his contiguity 
to Italy, and the celerity of his movements, he anti- 
cipated his rivals, and in sixty-six days from the ele- 
vation of Julianus, without drawing a sword, he was 
proclaimed emperor at Rome. The praetorians aban- 
doned the victim of their venality ; the senate deposed 
him, and he was executed like a common criminal. 

Four years of civil war succeeded, during which 
Severus, with a military talent approaching to that 
of Julius Caesar, triumphed over his rivals; but he 
treated them with shocking cruelty. He degraded and 
banished those praetorians who had been engaged in 
selling the empire. A war with the Caledonians, which 
he led in person, occupied him in his later years. To 



286 Ancient Empires. 

keep out the barbarians from the north he rebuilt with 
stone, a wall which Hadrian had made from Solway 
Forth to the mouth of the Tyne. He died at York. 
His sons, Caracalla and Geta, then in Britain, were 
declared joint emperors. Caracalla murdered his 
brother, whom their mother attempting to save, he 
wounded her in the arm. He thus obtained sole pos- 
session of the throne. His whole reign was stigma- 
tized by deeds of blood and infamy. 

Caracalla extended the Roman citizenship to all the 
provinces. The tribute received from the provinces, 
which Gibbon estimates at a sum equal to about loo,- 
000,000 of dollars, was represented by Augustus as 
not sufficient for the purposes of government, and he 
artfully contrived to make the Roman citizens submit 
to taxation by impost. Succeeding emperors had in- 
creased their burdens ; and Caracalla extended the 
right of citizenship, in order to impose on the foreign 
provinces the taxation of the citizen, while he failed 
to relieve them from the tribute of the stranger. They 
felt the double burden, and their discontent was one 
of the causes of the decline of the empire. Caracalla 
was assassinated in Syria, at the instigation of Macri- 
nus praetorian prefect. Macrinus was raised to the 
throne, but shortly deposed, and Heliogabalus, a re- 
puted son of Caracalla, was invested with the sover- 
eignty. His short reign of four years was one of un- 
mingled infamy. His violent death, the merited pun- 
ishment of his crimes, again left the imperial throne 
at the disposal of the army. 

Alexander Severus, the cousin of Heliogabalus, was 



The Romans. 387 

invested with the purple. Amiable, just, and humane, 
his reign is like a beam of light amidst surrounding 
darkness. He inherited from nature a happy dispo- 
sition, and a superior intellect, and was educated by 
a careful mother. Amidst the corrupting influences of 
regal authority, he was an example of industry, so- 
briety, and regularity of life; an elegant scholar, an 
affectionate son, a wise statesman, and an able gen- 
eral. He restored to the senate many of their rights, 
reduced the tribute of the provinces, and sought to 
enforce discipline in the army. But the military had 
become too strong for his curbing hand, Ulpian, the 
wisest and most beloved of his counselors, had in- 
curred the hatred of the guards, for attempting to 
bring them to order. They sought his life, and pur- 
sued him to the presence of the emperor. Alexander 
commanded, entreated, and covered his friend with his 
robe, but the audacious murderers stabbed him through 
it. 

Alexander went into Asia to conduct a war against 
the Persians. While he lay at Antioch, a portion of 
his army revolted. Appearing in the midst of the in- 
furiated soldiery, "Be silent," said he, "in the pres- 
ence of your sovereign." "Reserve your shouts for 
the enemy, or I will no longer allow you to be sol- 
diers." They brandished their swords, and rushed 
toward him. "Keep your courage," said he, "for the 
field of battle." They persisted in their dangerous 
demands, and again he spoke: "Citizens, no longer 
soldiers, lay down your arms, and depart to your re- 
spective habitations." The boisterous elements of se- 



288 Ancient Empires. 

dition sunk into grief and shame, and the soldiers 
obeyed. After a time he restored their arms ; and this 
legion ever after were devoted to his interest. 

The ancient monarchy of Persia had at this period 
revived, under a chief named Artaxerxes. Repeated 
and long continued wars with the Romans, had weak- 
ened the Parthian power. Of this Artaxerxes availed 
himself, to produce a general revolt of the Persians. 
A bloody battle ensued, in which Artabanus, the Par- 
thian king, was defeated, and the Persians restored 
to the sovereignty of the east. Claiming all Lesser 
Asia as the successor of Cyrus, the Persian monarch 
came into collision with the Roman empire. The event 
of the war was, at least, soi far unsuccessful to the 
Romans, that Artaxerxes retained the countries which 
he had conquered. Hardly had Alexander returned 
from the Persian war before he went north to encoun- 
ter a vast swarm of barbarians, who threatened to over- 
whelm the empire. In, his camp on the banks of the 
Rhine, while successfully pursuing the war, this prince, 
too good foT the age in which he lived, fell, with his 
mother, a victim to another mutiny of the soldiers, 
fomented by Maximinus, an ambitious aspirant to the 
throne. 

Maximinus was born in Thrace. His father was a 
Goth and his mother an Alan. Thirty-two years be- 
fore Severus, halting his army in Thrace, to celebrate 
games at wrestling, the young barbarian, Maximinus, 
of the gigantic height of eight feet, and of size and 
strength in proportion, presented himself, and in a 
rude dialect, asked to be admitted as a competitor. 



The Romans. 



289 



His prodigious exploits astonished the emperor, and 
he permitted him to enhst as a common soldier. 
From thence he rose by degrees till he attained a 
high command in the army. But without gratitude 
or mercy he had nothing but brute force to recom- 
mend him. He persuaded the soldiers that Alexander 
was effeminate. They slew him and proclaimed the 
barbarian emperor. He was suspicious of contempt 
from the well born and learned and he hated and de- 
stroyed them. The senate refused to sanction the nom- 
ination of the army ; and though Maximinus continued 
the German war with success, his cruelties created dis- 
affection, which, when he made the taxes of the prov- 
inces intolerable, broke into revolt. 

The interval from the reign of Maximinus and that 
of Diocletian, was filled by sixteen reigns, which fur- 
nish little that is pleasing or interesting. Of all the 
emperors who successively occupied the throne dur- 
ing that period of forty-six years, Claudius and Taci- 
tus alone died a natural death. The emperor Valerian, 
in a war with Sapor, king of Persia, was defeated 
and taken prisoner. The Persian monarch treated his 
captive with the greatest indignity and cruelty. He 
used him as a footstool for mounting his horse and 
finally ordered him to be put to death, then caused 
him to be flayed and his skin to be painted red, and 
suspended in one of the Persian temples, as a monu- 
ment of disgrace to the Romans. 

The reign of Aurelian was distinguished for brilliant 
military achievements. He defeated the Goths, and 
repelled the incursions of the Germans; but his most 



290 Ancient Empires. 

renowned victory, was that over Zenobia, the famous 
queen of Palmyra, who fell into his hands ; her secre- 
tary Longinus, the celebrated critic, was put to death 
by the order of the conqueror. On his return to Rome 
Aurelian was honored with a most splendid triumph; 
Zenobia was reserved to grace the scene, bound in 
chains of gold, and decked with a profusion of pearls 
and diamonds. 

Diocletian, who was the son of a Dalmatian slave, 
rose by his merit from the rank of a common soldier 
to that of an eminent commander, and was finally ele- 
vated to the throne, on the death of Numerian, A. D. 
284. 

Two years after his accession he associated with 
himself in government, his friend Maximin; and in 
292 they took two other colleagues, Galerius and Con- 
stantius, each bearing the title of Caesar. The em- 
pire was now divided into four parts, under the gov- 
ernment of two emperors and two Caesars, each nomi- 
nally supreme, but in reality controlled by the superior 
talents of Diocletian. 

At this time happened the tenth and last persecution 
of the Christians, which continued for several years 
with so much violence, that the tyrants boasted that 
they had extinguished the Christian name. 

Diocletian and Maximin, in the midst of their tri- 
umphs, surprised the world by resigning their dignities 
on the same day and both retiring into private station, 
A. D. 304. It is generally believed that they were 
compelled to take this step by Galerius, who, together 
with Constantius, was immediately afterwards acknowl- 



The Romans. 291 

edged emperor, Diocletian seems to have been con- 
tented with his lot; he retired to Salona, in his native 
country, Dalmatia, where he lived eight years, and 
amused himself in cultivating a small garden. Maxi- 
min attempted several times, but in vain, to resume 
ibe sovereign power, which he had abdicated, and even 
to murder his son-in-law, Constantine; but being de- 
tected he slew himself in despair. 

THE ROMAN EMPIRE FROM THE ADOPTION OF CHRIS- 
TIANITY. 

Constantine possessed a lofty and majestic stature, 
a bold, open countenance, and a graceful deportment. 
His constitution was made healthy by vigorous exercise 
in youth, and preserved by temperance and sobriety 
in later life. In business he was indefatigable, and 
he looked with a vigilant eye upon the affairs of gov- 
ernment; while, by rendering kindness to all who ap- 
proached him he secured love, at the same time that 
his talents and virtues commanded respect. Such was 
Constantine while dangers surrounded him ; but when 
released from fear and placed above responsibility, his 
character seems to have fallen from its elevation. 
Among other unworthy acts he is charged with jeal- 
ous cruelty to his son. 

Two events mark the boldness of his genius, and 
render his name memorable. The one was his removal 
of the seat of the Roman empire to Constantinople; 
the other was his adoption of Christianity as the re- 
ligion of the empire. Whether Constantine embraced 
it from conviction of its truth, or from policy, is mat- 



293 Ancient Empires. 

ter of dispute. Certain it is that this religion, though 
receiving from the Roman power only silent obloquy, 
or active persecution, had extended among the people ; 
so that Constantine strengthened himself in the affec- 
tions of the soldiers by adopting it. At this period, too, 
Christianity might number more writers of talent and 
literary abilities than paganism. Society had in its 
morals assumed a new and more healthful tone. 
Women, taught that they were co-heirs with men in 
the blessings of the gospel, felt their equal value as 
immortal beings and thus learned to respect themselves, 
and insure the respect of men. When such had be- 
come the influence of Christianity in the realm, world- 
ly ambition pointed to the course which the emperor 
pursued in declaring himself a Christian; and surely 
it was not in the spirit of Christ, who said, "My king- 
dom is not of this world," that Constantine made it 
the religion of the empire; and from henceforth we 
find its heavenly influence sullied by mingling with 
earthly things. He made a new division of the Ro- 
man world into four Prefectures, which were subdi- 
vided into diocesses, and these into provinces. No 
particular bishop was regarded as head of the whole 
church, but the emperor was such in point of fact. In 
this capacity he called the first ecclesiastical council, 
or collection of bishops at Nice, he having, in the 
controversy between Athanasius and Arius, taken sides 
against the latter. The council in this respect agreed 
with the emperor. 

If after the period of Constantine, it shall appear 
that human passions, and natural causes, contributed to 



The Romans. 293 

the extension of a religion whose divinity is attested 
by a severe and holy purity before unknown to the 
world, let it be remembered that what had previously 
occurred leaves a chasm in the chain of human means, 
by which Christianity was established, that cannot be 
supplied but on the supposition of divine agency. It 
is in vain that infidelity seeks to shake our faith, by say- 
ing that when men were offered eternal life, on con- 
dition of their abandoning the pleasures of this, they 
accepted the offer, because it was an advantageous 
bapgain; so long as they utterly fail in explaining 
how the apostles and first teachers of this religion 
got their own invincible faith, that the doctrine was 
indieed true? a faith which made them disregard la- 
bor, sufferings and death. Of this no account exists 
but in the New Testament. 

On the death of Constantine his dominions were di- 
vided between his three sons, Constantine, Constan- 
tius and Constans. The youth of these princes was 
not, like that of their father, spent in improving exer- 
cises, but in the effeminacy of a court. He knew that 
he had his fortune to make; they felt that theirs 
was secured. Hence their administration wanted the 
vigor of his, while they imitated his ambition and cru- 
elty. During the first year of their reign two uncles 
and seven cousins were sacrificed to their jealous fears. 
With the exception of Gallus and Julian, sons of the 
brother of Constantine, whose youth and feeble con- 
stitution alone saved them, these princes destroyed all 
the male members of the Constantine family; and 
they at length turned their arms against each other. 



394 Ancient Empires. 

Constantine, who governed the eastern portion of the 
empire, found himself early involved in a Persian war. 
The fame of his father had, during his life, checked 
all encroachments on the eastern provinces. Sapor, 
the grandson of Narses, was now on the Persian throne, 
and had for several campaigns, waged a successful 
war upon the provinces. Constantine marched against 
him — the Persian arms triumphed at Singara. The 
monarchs at length withdrew their forces and a peace 
was concluded. After Constantine's return a dispute 
between him and Constans ended in his violent death ; 
and left Constans sole master of the west. He main- 
tained his authority for ten years, when he fell a 
victim to the ambitions of Magnentius, the general of 
the Gallic legions, who assumed the purple. Constan- 
tius, to secure the undivided sovereignty of the em- 
pire, fought a bloody battle with Magnentius and de- 
feated him. Of the veteran soldiers of the empire, 
54,000 were left dead upon the field ; and Magnentius, 
despairing of the crown, put an end to his life. 

The civil wars had given the barbarians an oppor- 
tunity of renewing their depredations upon the fron- 
tier provinces. The Franks and the Alemanni had 
devastated Gaul. Flourishing towns were laid in 
ashes and the inhabitants compelled to flee from the 
country to the fortified cities, where they were obliged 
to depend for subsistence upon the scanty supply of 
grain raised within the walls. In the east the Sar- 
matians had passed the Danube, and the Persian mon- 
arch, now returned from a victorious expedition against 
the Scythians, again threatened the provinces of Asia. 



The Romans. 295 

Constantius found himself unequal to the weight of 
the empire, and was constrained to look for some one 
with whom to divide its cares. His cousin Julian, 
now the only remaining member of the Constantine 
family, had been left to pursue his studies in obscurity, 
among the Grecian philosophers. Constantius appoint- 
ed him Caesar and gave him command of the provinces 
of Gaul. He conducted in person the war with the 
Sarmatians, whom he defeated and compelled to sue 
for peace. 

Julian (called the Apostate from his having forsaken 
Christianity) whose abilities for action had been de- 
spised on accoiunt of iiis love of study, showed him- 
self an able general in a successful contest with the 
Franks and Alemanni. The fame of his hardy per- 
severance and successful enterprise spread through the 
empire and increased the already awakened jealousy of 
Constantius. He issued an order commanding a large 
detachment of the veterans who were under Julian, 
to march to the aid of the eastern legions. The troops, 
reluctant to enter upon what they deemed a foreign 
service, and unwilling to leave a general whom they 
loved for an emperor whom they despised, refused 
obedience and at once proclaimed Julian emperor. 
With feigned reluctance he accepted the crown and to 
enforce his claim, marched with secrecy and despatch 
to the attack of Constantinople. Constantius, relin- 
quishing the Persian war, marched to meet him; but 
his death relieved the empire from the horrors of civil 
contention. 

The reign of Julian was memorable for the re-es- 



296 Ancient Empires. 

tablishment of paganism. The emperor was, doubtless, 
above believing in its fooleries himself ; but he thought 
like most of the early philosophers of Greece and Rome, 
that the people must have some religion coined for 
their use. His ideas of Christianity were associated 
with the character and conduct towards his family of 
the Constantines, its supporters ; and he probably 
thought that Christianity, as well as paganism, was 
such a coinage; not reflecting that whatever God has 
made his creatures to need he invariably provides. 
Man is created to need religion ; for since the dawn of 
history there have been double dealing traffickers in 
the article. Among these stand prominent the Egyp- 
tian, Greek, and Roman priests, the Delphian oracu- 
lars, and the Druids of Britain. These manufacturers 
of fable and impositon, supplied the market kept ever 
open by man's mental craving; and they were repaid 
by his submission of body, soul and estate. Unlike 
these, the Christian teachers believed that Christianity 
was in truth that spiritual food which the Almighty 
Parent had himself sent down to satisfy the desires 
of the famishing soul. To this view of Christianity, 
which exalts it over all others as the only true religion, 
Julian himself gave an incidental testimony; for he 
recommended that with the heathen ceremonies, the 
people should follow the Christian morality. This em- 
peror did not indeed revive the persecutions of former 
pagan sovereigns, or prohibit the worship of the Chris- 
tions ; yet he removed them from offices of trust and 
from the care of the education of youth and oppressed 
them in various ways. 



The Romans. 297 

Julian settled the concerns of the west and pro- 
ceeded into Asia. After wintering in Antioch he 
marched toward Persia, ravaged the plains of Mes- 
opotamia, passed the Euphrates and spread devas- 
tation through a part of Syria. He attempted, with 
the strenuous aid of the Jews, to rebuild the temple at 
Jerusalem, in order to disprove the prophecy of Christ. 
The foundations of the temple were laid, but they 
were destroyed. "Horrible balls of fire," says a pa- 
gan historian, "breaking out from the foundation with 
frequent and reiterated attacks, rendered the place in- 
accessible to the workmen. The victorious element con- 
tinuing in this manner, seemed obstinately bent to drive 
them to a distance and the hopeless attempt was aban- 
doned." Christians and pagans alike believed that the 
doom of a supernatural power forbade the work; and 
it was no more attempted. 

At the passage of the Tigris the Romans obtained 
a victory over the Persians, but here their successes 
ended. Julian was induced to burn his fleet at the 
suggestion of a treacherous Persian, who, in the char- 
acter of a deserter, had entered his camp. As the 
Romans advanced their provisions failed. The cattle 
were driven away, the inhabitants had departed, and 
the country, naturally fertile, presented only smoking 
ruins. The emperor sought to retrace his steps, but 
the Persian prince, with a, numerous army, appeared 
in sight, hovered around, and harassed his retreat. 
Attempting to force his way Julian was mortally 
wounded. His dying moments were passed, not in 
sacrificing to the gods, but in philosophical discourse. 



298 Ancient Empires. 

The unexpected death of the leader spread, in the 
harassed army, confusion and dismay. The officers 
could not agree upon a successor, when the name of 
Jovian, a man of no military renown, but attached to 
the household of Julian, was circulated among the 
troops and he was immediately declared emperor. 

Amid their deliberations and sorrows the legions 
had been compelled to continue their retreat, surround- 
ed by the Persians, and momentarily subject to their 
vexatious and often fatal attacks. Four days after 
the death of Julian the disheartened army reached the 
city of Susa. The Tigris was still to be crossed and 
they were almost in despair of effecting their escape. 
Here Sapor sent them proposals of peace, and although 
they were disadvantageous, they were accepted. The 
provinces beyond the Tigris, which Diocletian had ob- 
tained of Narses, were then ceded to Persia, and the 
impregnable city of Nisibis, which had so often re- 
sisted the Persian arms, together with some of the 
strongest fortresses in Mesopotamia, were surrendered ; 
when the army were suffered to pursue their home- 
ward way in ignominious peace. 

On the accession of Jovian Christianity again became 
the established religion of the empire. But his reign 
was terminated by death before he reached Con- 
stantinople. Valentinian, commander of the guards, 
was uanimously proclaimed his successor. He ap- 
pointed his brother Valens as his colleague, commit- 
ting to him the eastern provinces, while himself re- 
tired to the western, where he prosecuted the war 
against the barbarians with considerable success. Yet 



The Romans. 299 

the decline of the empire became more and more ap- 
parent. The civil wars of the sons of Constantine had 
destroyed vast numbers of soldiers, and left the fron- 
tiers exposed to the depredations of the barbarians. 
The valor and energy of Julian had, indeed, for a 
moment, checked their incursions, but his unsuccess- 
ful Persian war had still farther weakened the mili- 
tary force of the empire, and prepared the way for 
the peace, by which Jovian began its dismemberment. 
Valentinian died in the twelfth year of his reign, and 
left the empire to his son Gratian, with the condition 
that a younger son named Valentinian, then an infant, 
should be associated with him. 

The Goths, who had repeatedly invaded the empire, 
again appeared on its frontier; not now indeed in the 
character of hostile barbarians, but of humble sup- 
pliants, themselves driven from their dominions. The 
Huns, a vast and terrible race inhabiting the north 
of Asia, and more barbarous than either the Goths 
or Germans, had been precipitated by the wars in the 
east, upon the frontiers of Europe. Under Attila, 
called the "Scourge of God," they had subdued the 
nations of the Alani, who inhabited the regions be- 
tween the Volga and Tanais, and advanced upon the 
kingdom of the Goths. Their first appearance on the 
Gothic frontier was in the declining days of the great 
chief, Hermanric, whose dominion, it is said, extended 
from the Baltic to the Danube and lake Mseotis; and 
who had united under his sway the two great portions 
of the Gothic race, the western or Visigoths, and the 
eastern or Ostrogoths; the former having been gov- 



300 Ancient Empires. 

erned by the house of the Balti, the latter by that of 
Amah. The death of Hermanric prevented the united 
efforts of the Goths in checking the invaders and the 
Ostrogoths soon submitted. The Visigoths, in terror 
as the desolating "Scourge" approached, supplicated 
the emperor Valens for vacant lands on the southern 
banks of the Danube, engaging to guard the frontier 
from the dreaded enemy. 

Valens agreed to admit the Gothic nation within 
the empire on certain conditions, to which they ac- 
ceded, but the most important of which, the relin- 
quishment of their arms, they afterwards evaded. The 
nation was transported across the Danube to improve 
the waste lands of Thrace. A milhon of barbarians, 
who could bring into the field 200,000 warriors, were 
thus admitted to a peaceful settlement within the bosom 
of the empire. The emperor granted the Goths per- 
mission to engage in traffic ; but the avarice of the 
Roman ministers not only rendered the permission 
useless, but destructive to them. At length their 
property was exhausted in procuring means of sub- 
sistence and they were compelled to sell their children 
to obtain bread. The treachery of the. Roman gov- 
ernor of Marcianopolis towards Fritigern, a valiant 
Goth, enkindled his wrath. He summoned his coun- 
trymen to arms and led them to Maesia, which they 
overran and desolated ; and then proceeded to threat- 
en the capital. 

Valens now sought to crush a nation, whom he had 
first introduced into the heart of the empire, and 
then forced by ill usage to become his enemies. Gra- 



The Komans. 301 

tian, who had just succeeded his father in the west, 
was summoned to his aid, but was prevented by an 
eruption of the Alemanni, which employed his whole 
resources. The Visigoths, meanwhile, had formed an 
alliance with a body of Ostrogoths, who had also pro- 
cured a settlement on the southern side of the Dan- 
ube, and with some scattered hordes of the Alani and 
Huns. On the plains of Adrianople, Valens met the 
barbarians, and the courage and skill of the Roman 
legions failed in the encounter. The emperor was 
wounded and conveyed to a building, which being fired 
by the enemy, he perished in the flames. Two-thirds 
of the imperial army were destroyed; the remainder 
fled and the Goths ravaged the country to the suburbs 
of Constantinople. 

Gratian, meanwhile victorious over the Alemanni, 
marched to the relief of the east. He learned on his 
journey the death of Valens and the defeat of his 
army; and sensible of his inability to sustain the 
weight of an empire sinking under its numerous foes, 
he associated with himself in the government, Theo- 
dosius, a native of Spain.' His father was a general 
who had distinguished himself in the reign of Valen- 
tinian, but was unjustly put to death, by order of 
Gratian himself. But such was the towering genius 
of the son, such his reputation for wisdom and mag- 
nanimity of temper, that the emperor, in his hour of 
peril, scrupled not to admit him as his partner. Theo- 
dosius was free from the vainglory of conquest, and 
he pursued at first a careful and watchful policy. 
From Thessalonica, which he made his headquarters, 



303 Ancient Empires. 

he kept his eye fixed upon the barbarians, and availed 
himself of every judicious opportunity of wasting 
their forces, or gaining over their leaders. 

Fritigem died and disunion among the Goths en- 
sued; the different tribes pursued each its own indi- 
vidual interest without concert or design ; and in four 
years from the death of Valens, the policy of Theo- 
dosius procured an advantageous peace, the conditions 
of which were arranged in the neighborhood of Con- 
stantinople. Theodosius invited their aged chief, 
Athanaric, to visit the capital, and partake the hospi- 
talities of his palace. The chieftain was astonished at 
the grandeur and magnificence of the objects present- 
ed to his view. "Truly," exclaimed he, "the em- 
peror of the Romans is a god upon earth, and the pre- 
sumptuous man who dares to lift his hand against 
him is guilty of his own blood." Athanaric sickened 
and died. Theodosius paid the most respectful hon- 
ors to his remains, and his grateful Goths, thus con- 
verted into friends, entered the Roman legions, de- 
claring that while Theodosius lived they would ac- 
knowledge no other chief. 

While Theodosius was thus calming the disorders 
of the east a new insurrection had arisen in the west. 
The indolence of Gratian had alienated the affections 
of his subjects. Maximus, at the head of his legions, 
entered Gaul, where he was hailed as emperor. Gra- 
tian, who was at Paris, fled to Lyons, and was there 
assassinated through the intrigues of Maximus, who 
next invaded Italy and compelled the widowed em- 
press Justina^ with her young son Valentinian II., 



The Romans. 303 

and her daughter Galla, to flee for succor to the 
emperor of the east. Theodosius did not invite them 
to his court, but met them at Thessalonica, whither 
they had come by sea. His wife being dead, he mar- 
ried the beautiful Galla, and then marched, at the 
head of a hardy and disciplined army, into Pannonia. 
On the banks of the Save he met and defeated the 
forces of Maximus and executed the usurper. The 
provinces returned to their allegiance, and Theodosius, 
superior to the seductions of prosperity, so often fatal 
to virtue, magnanimously restored to Valentinian the 
throne of Milan and added to his dominions the prov- 
inces of Britain and Gaul. But the young prince soon 
fell a victim to domestic treason. Theodosius thus 
became sole monarch of the empire, now for the last 
time united under the sway of one sovereign. 

Since the reign of Constantine Christianity had been 
rapidly declining from its primitive purity, and am- 
bitious men sought, through its medium, to gratify 
the unhallowed lust of power. By gradually extend- 
ing the authority of the bishops, the foundation was laid 
of that abominable oppression, which for so many 
ages was to weigh down the moral and intellectual 
energies of Europe. During the reign of Theodosius, 
the ecclesiastical power manifested itself as already 
superior to the civil. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, had 
forbidden to the empress Justina, who reigned in the 
name of her son Valentinian II., the use of a chapel, 
where she might worship agreeably to her belief in 
the Arian doctrines. The bishop next sternly and 
openly denounced her as a heretic and when she passed 



304 Ancient Empires. 

an edict to banish him he refused to obey; nor could 
she compel his obedience, or punish his contumacy. 
Theodosius had, in a moment of passion, given the 
only cruel order which stains his equitable govern- 
ment, that of putting to the sword the offending peo- 
ple of Thessalonica. He repented and sought, too late, 
to hinder its execution. Ambrose boldly reproached 
him and exacted of him public penance; and the mas- 
ter of the world, in a mournful and suppliant posture, 
with sighs and tears, confessed and deplored his crime, 
in the presence of the congregation. 

Theodosius died at Milan, a few months after he 
had quelled the disturbances consequent on the death 
of Valentinian, lamented by the church, to which he 
had been reconciled ; by the Roman people, whom 
he had governed with moderation ; and even by the van- 
quished provinces, who had experienced his kindness. 
Before his death he divided the empire between his 
two young sons ; and this division proving permanent, 
becomes an important epoch in history. 

Honorius and Arcadius, sons of Theodosius, sufifered 
the northern barbarians to enter the empire and to 
possess themselves of several of the most fertile prov- 
inces. The Goths, tmder the famous Alaric, spread 
their devastations to the very walls of Constantinople, 
and filled all Greece with the terror of their arms. 
Alaric then penetrated into Italy at the head of a pow- 
erful army, but was defeated with great loss by the 
Romans under the command of Stilico. After the 
death of this general Alaric invaded Italy a second 
time, and having taken and pillaged several cities, he 



The Romans. 305 

at length pitched his camp before the waUs of Rome. 
This famous city, which had for ages been the mis- 
tress of the world and had enriched herself by the 
spoils of vanqtiished nations, was now reduced to the 
greatest extremities by famine and pestilence. 

Rome was finally taken by Alaric, who gave up the 
city to be plundered by his soldiers, with a charge to 
spill the blood of none but those whom they found in 
arms, and to spare all those who took refuge in the 
churches. The fearful devastation continued for six 
days, during which the fierce barbarians, notwithstand- 
ing the injunctions of the chieftain, indulged their cru- 
elty and ferocity without pity or restraint. Alaric 
now prepared to invade Sicily and Africa, but death 
suddenly put an end to all his ambitious projects ; but 
the Goths having elected Ataulphus for their leader, 
took possession of the southern part of Gaul, and laid 
the foundation of their kingdom in Spain. 

A few years after the sacking of Rome by Alaric 
the country was again devastated by the Huns, a bar- 
barous people of Scythian origin, under the command 
of Attila, their king, styled the "Scourge of God." 
Having overrun the eastern empire, he invaded Gaul 
with an army of five hundred thousand men ; but he was 
defeated on the plains of Chalons by the combined 
forces of the Romans under Aetius and the Goths 
under Theodoric, with a loss of one hundred and sixty 
thousand men. The warlike spirit of Attila was 
checked by this defeat, but not subdued ; placing him- 
self again at the head of his army, he shortly after- 
ward invaded Italy, and having extended his ravages 



306 



Ancient Empires. 



to the gates of Rome, compelled Valentinian III. to 
purchase a peace by the payment of immense sums of 
money, with his sister Honoria in marriage. Attila 
died shortly after this event, and his body is said to 
have been buried, enclosed in three coffins, the first 
of gold, the second of silver, and the third of iron; 
and the men who dug the grave were put to death, 
lest they should reveal the place of his burial. 

Every circumstance now seemed to hasten the down- 
fall of the empire which had been long on the verge 
of ruin. Aetius, the only man capable of defending 
it against its numerous enemies, was slain by the hand 
of Valentinian himself, on a pretended charge of con- 
spiracy. 

Shortly after this event Valentinian was assassinated 
in his turn, at the instigation of Petronius Maximus, 
who was proclaimed emperor in his stead and the 
empress Eudoxia invited Genseric, king of the Van- 
dals, to avenge the murder of her husband. He eager- 
ly embraced the opportunity, landed in Italy with a 
numerous army of Moors and Vandals, took the city 
of Rome, which he gave up to his soldiers to be pil- 
laged for eleven days ; and after having destroyed many 
of the monuments of art and literature which Alaric 
had spared and enriched himself with the spoils of 
the city, he returned to Carthage. 

From the reign of Valentinian III. the western em- 
pire dragged out a precarious existence under nine 
successive emperors, for the space of twenty-one years, 
until its final termination in 476, by the resignation of 
Romulus Augustus, the last of its emperors, to Odoacer, 



The Romans. 307 

the chief of the Heruli, who assumed the title of King 
of Italy. Thus terminated the Roman empire in the 
west, twelve hundred and twenty-nine years after the 
building of the city, and five hundred and seven years 
after the battle of Actium. Such, observes Goldsmith, 
was the end of this mighty empire, which had con- 
quered mankind by its arms and instructed the world 
by its wisdom ; which had risen by temperance and 
fell by luxury; which had been established by a spirit 
of patriotism and sunk to ruin when the empire had 
become so extensive that a Roman citizen was but 
an empty name. Roman glory had passed away; 
Roman liberty existed only in the remembrance of the 
past ; the rude warriors of Germany and Scythia pos- 
sessed the city of Romulus ; and a barbarian occupied 
the palace of the Caesars. 

THE EASTERN OR BYZANTINE EMPIRE, 

The stronger allurements which the western empire 
offered to the barbarians, and the subsidies paid by 
the emperors of the east, preserved that portion in 
comparative tranquillity. Arcadius, a weak and timid 
prince, was, at his death, succeeded by his son Theo- 
dosius. He was a minor at the time of his accession, 
and, during his whole reign, was subject to the influ- 
ence of his sister, Pulcheria. On his death she suc- 
ceeded to the throne, and was the first female who 
swayed the scepter of the Roman empire. She was 
a princess of genius and virtue. On her death the 
Theodosian family became extinct in the east. Mar- 
cian, her husband, continued to reign with a vigorous 



308 Ancient Empires. 

and prudent policy. Despising the miserable artifices 
by which former emperors had purchased immunity 
from the dreaded arms of the Huns, he stopped the 
payment of the subsidies. The Huns menaced re- 
venge ; but the death of Attila occurring at this period 
delivered the empire from the danger of the threatened 
invasion. Leo, the successor of Marcian, was emperor 
at the period of the destruction of the western empire. 
Zeno, Anastasius and Justin, successively ascended the 
throne, but left behind them no deed which should 
preserve their names from oblivion. 

Justinian succeeded Justin. The kingdom of the 
Vandals in Africa, founded by Genseric, had become 
established. Hilderic, grandson of Genseric, succeed- 
ed him. He was deposed by Gelimer. Justinian, de- 
sirous to recover the province, affected to favor Hil- 
deric and sent Belisarius with an army into Africa. 
He conquered the Vandals, reduced Carthage, and took 
Gelimer, whom he carried to Constantinople, to grace 
his triumph. As Hilderic had been executed the race 
of Genseric became extinct, and Africa now belonged 
to the eastern empire. Gelimer was seen in the tri- 
umphal procession o£ Belisarius, arrayed in regal robes, 
and though he neither sighed or wept, he was heard to 
murmur, ''Vanity! vanity! all is vanity!" Gelisarius 
next marched to Italy, where he defeated the Ostro- 
goths, subdued Italy and Sicily, and returned to Con- 
stantinople with Vitiges, the Gothic king, in chains. 

These successes awakened the jealousy of Chosroes, 
reigning sovereign of Persia, who now renewed the 
war which had been suspended by a truce. Belisar- 



The Romans. 309 

ills was sent against him and the war was waged with 
various and alternate success until the declining years 
of Justinian and Chosroes cooled their military ardor, 
and procured a further truce for fifty years. Beli- 
sarius was next sent to Italy against the Goths, who 
had rebelled, but being recalled through a jealousy 
which had arisen in the mind of the emperor, Narses, 
another lieutenant of Justinian was substituted in his 
place, and effected their complete reduction. After 
this final conquest of the Gothic kingdom the govern- 
ment of Italy was administered by officers styled Ex- 
archs, who held their court at Ravenna, and were the 
representatives of the eastern emperor. 

The Bulgarians, aided by a multitude of barbarous 
Sclavonians, now crossed the Danube, ravaged Mace- 
donia and Thrace, and extended their devastations 
within a few miles of Constantinople. Bglisarius met 
and defeated them. But this was the last of his many 
victories; and he who had so gloriously sustained the 
military fame of the empire, was doomed by regal 
ingratitude to pass his old age in penury and disgrace. 

While the arms of the empire had acquired glory 
abroad the declining nation was still in distress. Con- 
stantinople was distracted by factions. Earthquakes 
of unusual extent and duration spread desolation in 
different parts. Antioch, especially, was almost wholly 
destroyed, and 250,000 persons were supposed to have 
been buried in its ruins. A most dreadful pestilence 
spread its ravages through the empire, and for a time 
its virulence seemed undiminished by the change of 
seasons. At length its malignity abated, but for half 



310 Ancient Empires. 

a century its presence was in some degree felt. In 
Constantinople during three months 5,000, and at last 
10,000 persons are reported to have died daily. Many 
cities of the east were depopulated and during the 
reign of Justinian there was a visible diminution of 
the human species. 

Justinian derives his chief reputation from his sys- 
tem of Roman jurisprudence. With the assistance of 
Tribonian, an eminent lawyer, he digested and sim- 
plified the mass of laws, which had been accumulating 
for ages ; and formed those bodies of law called The 
Justinian Code, the Pandects, and the Institutes. This 
was the greatest work of the age, and forms the foun- 
dation of the present civil law. 

Justin II,, who was nephew and successor to Jus- 
tinian, was unequal to the weight of government and 
associated with himself Tiberius, a man of surpass- 
ing merit, the captain of the guards. The barbarian 
Lombards, under Alboin, conquered the northern part 
of Italy, and established a kingdom to which they gave 
the name of Lombardy. By the nomination of the 
worthy Tiberius, Maurice succeeded him. A revolu- 
tion had occurred in Persia. Hormouz had succeeded 
his father Chosroes, or Nourshirvan the Just; but he 
was of an opposite character. He had in Bahram a 
general of great talents and ambition. In a fit of 
hasty displeasure Hormouz sent a present of a woman's 
dress, a wheel and a distafif, to Bahram. He put on 
the dress, and with his presents in his hands, appeared 
before the army. The enraged soldiers, thus insulted 
in the person of their commander, revolted, and de- 



The Romans. an 

posed the foolish monarch. His son Chosroes fled to 
Constantinople. Maurice received him favorably, and 
dispatched an army to Persia, which subverted the 
power of Bahram and placed him, as Chosroes II., on 
the throne of his fathers. 

The Avars, an Asiatic race^ had fled from the victor- 
ious arms of the Turks, or Turcomans. By union with 
the Lombards they had destroyed the Gepidae. After 
the Lombards carried their arms and nation into Italy, 
the Avars settled in Pannonia, which they had vacat- 
ed, and extended their dominion from the Euxine to 
the foot of the Alps. While the Persian war employed 
the imperial arms in the east the Avars threatened the 
empire from the north. As soon as the military force 
was released from the Persian war Maurice hastened 
to employ it against these barbarians. His generals 
were ill selected, with the exception of Priscus, who 
obtained several victories ; but the situation of the 
army and the empire rendered even his victories un- 
profitable. 

The emperor ordered the army to make the country 
of the Avars their winter quarters. Already inclined 
to mutiny, they now burst into open revolt, declared 
Maurice unworthy of the crown and elevated Phocas, 
an ignorant and brutal centurion. The rebel army then 
hastened their return to Constantinople. Maurice and 
his family had fled to Chalcedon whither the cruel 
emissaries of Phocas followed. They compelled the 
emperor to witness the successive murder of his five 
sons. The agonized father uttered the ejaculation, 
"Thou art just, O Lord, and thy judgments are right- 



312 Ancient Empires. 

eous." Even amidst this dreadful scene, his stern ad- 
herence to truth prevailed over natural affection. 
When the nurse by falsehood sought to preserve the 
life of his infant, Maurice disclosed her design, and 
surrendered his child. 

An ignominious peace with the Avars was made 
by Phocas, who found himself exposed at once to a 
revolt of the province of Africa and to the arms of 
Chosroes, who now found, in the death of his bene- 
factor, Maurice, a pretext for war. He wrested from 
the empire many of its eastern fortresses and carried 
terror into Syria. Heraclius, son of the exarch of 
Africa, who had never acknowledged the authority of 
Phocas, advanced at the head of the African forces 
and by a union with the disaffected, made himself 
master of Constantinople and deposed and executed 
the tyrant. Chosroes made himself successively mas- 
ter of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria ; and while 
one division of his army extended his conquests to 
Tripoli, another marched to the Bosphorus and, for 
ten years, lay encamped in the neighborhood of Con- 
stantinople. The Avars renewed their hostilities and 
encamped their hosts along the plains of Thrace. 
Thus, on every side, the speedy dissolution of the 
empire was threatened. 

In this extremity the funds of the church were ap- 
propriated to the service of the empire, and an immense 
army was levied, while a large subsidy purchased, 
though it did not secure, the neutrality of the Avars. 
Declining to engage the Persian army, which lay en- 
camped opposite the city, Heraclius, master of the 



The Romans. 3i3 

sea, transported his forces to the confines of Syria 
and Cilicia and pitched his camp near Issus, on the 
ground where Alexander had vanquished Darius, Here, 
secure from attack, he organized and discipHned his 
troops. The Persians repaired to Cilicia, and Herac- 
lius drew them into an engagement and defeated them. 

In the next campaign Heraclius passed the Black 
Sea and traversed the mountains of Armenia. He 
penetrated into the heart of Persia to compel Chosroes 
to recall his armies for the defense of his own king- 
dom. The Persian king, however, still maintained his 
army in the vicinity of Constantinople, to second the 
operations of the treacherous Chagan, or chief of the 
Avars, who, regardless of the subsidy he had received 
as the price of his neutrality, had entered into an alli- 
ance with the Persians. A host of Avars, Gepidae, 
Russians, Bulgarians, and Sclavonians, now besieged 
Constantinople, but were repulsed ; while the Persians, 
on the opposite side of the Bosphorus, beheld their 
discomfiture, without being able to render them any 
assistance. 

Heraclius had, meantime, strengthened his army by 
an alliance with the Turks. A memorable battle was 
fought at Nineveh, in which the Roman arms tri- 
umphed. Chosroes was shortly after assassinated by 
his son Siroes, who concluded a peace with the 
Romans, in which he relinquished the conquests of his 
father; and Heraclius withdrawing his forces from 
the kingdom, returned to his capital in triumph. 



THE DARK AGES. 

That period between the fall of the western empire 
and the close of the fifteenth century is usually termed 
the Dark Ages, since, with the disappearance of the 
civilization of Rome, the world seemed to have relapsed 
into barbarism. But the thoughtful student will not 
fail to perceive that this period, apparently so full of 
darkness and hopelessness, was in reahty a season of 
growth, in which the civilization of Europe was be- 
ing shaped, and during which it was acquiring strength 
for the part it was to play in the great drama of 
modern history. In tracing this development through 
the period of the Dark Ages, we shall be chiefly con- 
cerned with the growth and expansion of the great 
Teutonic or German race, which, from its seat in cen- 
tral and eastern Europe, began immediately upon the 
downfall of the western empire to absorb and shape 
the destiny and character of almost the entire conti- 
nent. As an accomplished writer of our own land 
well says, "The history of the Middle Ages is the 
history of the incorporation of Teutonic or Germanic 
barbarians with the Latin and Celtic elements; mod- 
ern society is the result of the blending of the two; 
and it derives its ingredients from both — from the 
barbarians the love of personal liberty and the sense 
of independence ; from the Romans the forms of a 
long established civilization." 

It will be interesting and useful to glance at the 

(314) 



The Dark Ages. 315 

settlement of the nations of Europe at the time when 
Odoacer erected his throne upon the ruins of the 
Roman empire. The Germanic race was already pre- 
dominant in Europe and the Germanic tribes were be- 
ginning to press the Celtic nations into narrower quar- 
ters. The people of Gaul were of the Celtic stock, 
but they had been so greatly influenced by their long 
connection with the Romans that they had become thor- 
oughly Latinized and Christianized before the disrup- 
tion of the empire. The same may be said for the Celt- 
Iberians of Spain. The Celts of the British islands 
had also been given the rights of Roman citizens, and 
had been greatly affected by their contact with the 
Romans. The German influence began to affect these 
nations about the fall of the western empire, and with 
entire success, as we shall see in other portions of this 
work. 

The principal Germanic tribes were the Goths, the 
Franks, the Vandals, the Burgundians, the Lombards, 
the Saxons, the Angles, and the Scandinavians. 

At the fall of the Western empire the Visigothic 
kingdom of Euric embraced the whole of Spain, and 
all of Gaul south of the Loire and west of the Rhone. 
The capital of this kingdom was Aries, which was re- 
garded as the center of western civilization. It was 
the chosen seat of learning and refinement in Eu- 
rope, and its monarch was the most powerful and en- 
lightened of European sovereigns. The northwestern 
part of Spain was held by the Suevi, who were tribu- 
tary to Euric. Under the descendants of Euric the 
Visigoths were driven south of the Pyrenees and con- 



316 Ancient Empires. 

fined to the Spanish peninsula, where they maintained 
themselves until their kingdom was destroyed by the 
Saracens, two centuries later. The Ostrogoths held 
Italy and the region between the Danube and the 
Adriatic. The Gepidse, another division of the Gothic 
family, were established north of the lower Danube, 
and between the upper Danube and the Carpathian 
mountains, the region now known as Moldavia, Wal- 
lachia and eastern Hungary. The Goths were the 
first of the Teutonic nations to come under the influ- 
ence of Christianity. At the time of the fall of the 
western empire they had generally adopted the form of 
Christianity known as Arianism. 

The Franks, who were subsequently to become mas- 
ters of ancient Gaul and to give their name to the 
greater part of it, were still chiefly beyond its limits, 
but were beginning to press over the border. We 
first find them inhabiting the country now known as 
Belgium and the region of the lower Rhine. About 
the time of the fall of the empire they overran Gaul 
and drove out the Visigoths from the southwest, and 
conquered the Burgundians. To their new home the 
name of France came at length to be attached, from 
Francia, the land of the Franks. 

The Vandals had spread themselves from the ex- 
treme south of the Spanish peninsula to the northern 
shore of Africa, where they had established their king- 
dom, with Carthage as their capital. They possessed 
also Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearic Isles. 

The Burgundians occupied the valley of the Rhone 
and the Swiss lakes, the region which for a thousand 



The Dark Ages. 317 

years bore their name and whose ruler, until sub- 
dued, was a powerful rival to the crown of France. 

The Lombards, or Langobards, were at this period 
settled immediately to the north of the Gepidse, be- 
tween the Danube and the head waters of the Vistula. 
Their original home was Jutland, from which they 
moved to the banks of the Elbe. Later on they passed 
to the southeast and settled in the region just named, 
from which they were afterwards to descend upon 
Italy. 

The Saxons (or knifemen, a name derived from the 
word Sacho) came originally from the province now 
known as Holstein. By the period we are consider- 
ing they had spread over the basin of the Weser, 
from the Rhine on the south to the Baltic. Two of 
the principal Saxon tribes occupied the peninsula of 
Denmark. They were the Jutes and the Angles. The 
Saxons had never met the Romans and were conse- 
quently unaffected by Roman influences. They were 
still pagans. Great numbers of them had settled along 
the coasts of northern Gaul, and their piratical craft 
carried terror along the entire European coast Pre- 
vious to the fall of the western empire the Angles, 
Saxons and Jutes had crossed the North Sea and es- 
tabHshed themselves in the southern part of Britain, 
to which they gave the name of England, or ''land of 
the Angles." 

The Scandinavians do not appear on the scene until 
the ninth or tenth century, when we shall encounter 
them under the name of Norsemen. 

These were the principal divisions of the great Teu- 



318 Ancient Empires. 

tonic family. Beyond the Elbe, dwelling in the vast 
plains of eastern Europe, were the Slaves or Slavon- 
ians, one of the grand divisions of the Aryan stock 
in Europe. They were a pastoral people, superior in 
numbers, but inferior in power, to the Teutonic race. 
They were the ancestors of the modern Poles, Bohe- 
mians, Bulgarians, Illyrians, and, to a great degree 
of the Rusians. 

The Finnish tribes occupied the frozen and marshy 
regions of the extreme north. The eastern or Greek 
empire covered southeastern Europe. The Celts still 
inhabited the extreme northwest of Gaul with the 
Bretons that had been expelled by the Saxons. Those 
British colonies gave the name of Brittany to that 
territory. The Celts also controlled the countries now 
known as Wales, Scotland and Ireland. 

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

The Feudal System had its origin among the bar- 
barous nations, the Goths, Vandals, Huns, Lombards, 
and others, that overran the countries of Europe, on 
the decline of the Roman empire ; but it is supposed 
to have received its earliest improvement among the 
Lombards. It was adopted by Charlemagne, and 
eventually by most of the princes of Europe ; and it 
is generally believed to have been first introduced into 
England by William the Conqueror. 

When the northern barbarians had made a conquest 
of the provinces of the Roman empire the conquered 
lands were distributed by lot; hence they were called 
allotted or allodial; and they were held in entire sov- 



The Dark Ages. 319 

ereignty by the different chieftains, without any other 
obhgation existing between them than that of uniting 
in case of war for the common defense. The king or 
captain-general, who led on his respective tribes to 
conquest, naturally received by far the largest portion 
of territory for his own share; and his principal fol- 
lowers, to whom he granted lands, bound themselves 
merely to render him military services. 

The example of the king was imitated by his cour- 
tiers, who distributed, under similar conditions, por- 
tions of their estates to their dependents. Thus a 
feudal kingdom became a military establishment and 
had the appearance of a victorious army encamped un- 
der its officers in different parts of a country; every 
captain or baron considering himself independent of 
his sovereign, except during a period of national war. 

Possessed of wide tracts of country and residing at 
a distance from the capital these barons or lords erected 
strong and gloomy castles or fortresses in places of 
difficult access ; and not only oppressed the people and 
slighted the civil magistracy of the state, but were 
often in a condition to set the authority of the crown 
itself at defiance. 

The fundamental principle of this system was that 
all the lands were originally granted out by the sov- 
ereign and were held of the crown. The grantor was 
called lord, and they to whom he made grants, were 
styled his feudatories or vassals. As military service 
was the only burden to which the feudatories were sub- 
jected, this service was esteemed honorable and the 
names of freeman and soldier were synonymous. 



320 Ancient Empires. 

The feudal government, though well calculated for 
defense, was nevertheless very defective in its pro- 
visions for the internal order of society. The great 
barons or lords possessed extensive tracts of country, 
erected on them fortified castles in places difficult of 
access, oppressed the people, slighted the civil au- 
thorities, and frequently set their sovereigns at defi- 
ance. 

A kingdom resembled a number of confederate states 
under one common head ; the barons or lords acknowl- 
edging a species of allegiance to their sovereign, yet 
when obedience was refused it could only be enforced 
by an appeal to arms. But the great mass of the peo- 
ple who cultivated the land were called serfs or vil- 
lains, and lived in the most servile condition. They 
were not permitted to bear arms, nor suffered to leave 
the estates of their lords. As each of the feudal lords 
was independent within the limits of his own imme- 
diate possessions, and as the thread of unity existing 
between them was at all times feeble, it was natural 
to suppose that frequent disputes and sanguinary con- 
tests were the consequence. Such in reality was the 
case ; hence we find that Europe, during the existence 
of the Feudal System exhibited an almost uninter- 
riipted scene of anarchy, turbulence, and destructive 
warfare. 

Some of the causes assigned for the gradual decline 
of the Feudal System were the Crusades, the extension 
of commerce, the increase and distribution of wealth 
and knowledge, and lastly, the change of warfare which 
followed the invention of gunpowder. 



The Dark, Ages. 321 

CHIVALRY. 

In the midst of confusion and crime; while property 
was held by the sword and cruelty and injustice reigned 
supreme, the spirit of chivalry arose to turn back the 
tide of oppression, and to plant, in the very midst of 
barbarism, the seeds of the most noble and the most 
generous principles. The precise time at which chi- 
valry was recognized as a military institution, with 
outward forms and ceremonials, cannot now be ascer- 
tained; but the first notices we have of it trace it to 
that age when the disorders in the feudal system had 
attained their utmost point of excess, toward the close 
of the tenth century. It was then that some noble 
barons, filled with charitable zeal and religious enthu- 
siasm, and moved with compassion for the wretched- 
ness which they saw around them, combined together, 
under the solemnity of religious sanctions, with the 
holy purpose of protecting the weak from the oppres- 
sion of the powerful, and of defending the right cause 
against the wrong. 

The spirit and the institution of chivalry spread 
rapidly; treachery and hypocrisy became detestable; 
while courtesy, magnanimity, courage, and hospitality, 
became the virtues of the age; and the knights, who 
were ever ready to draw their swords, at whatever 
odds, in defense of innocence, received the adoration 
of the populace, and, in public opinion, were exalted 
even above kings themselves. The meed of praise and 
esteem gave fresh vigor and purity to the cause of 
chivalry ; and under the influence of its spirit great 
deeds were done by the fraternity of valiant knights 



333 Ancient Empires. 

who had enrolled themselves as its champions. "The 
baron forsook his castle, and the peasant his hut, to 
maintain the honor of a family, or preserve the sacred- 
ness of a vow ; it was this sentiment which made the 
poor serf patient in his toils and serene in his sor- 
rows ; it enabled his master to brave all physical evils, 
and enjoy a sort of spiritual romance ; it bound the 
peasant to his master and the master to his king; 
and it was the principle of chivalry, above all others, 
that was needed to counteract the miseries of an infant 
state of civilization." 

Though in the practical exemplifications of chivalry 
there was often much of error, yet its spirit was based 
upon the most generous impulses of human nature. 
"To speak the truth, to succor the helpless and op- 
pressed and never to turn back from an enemy," was 
the first vow of the aspirant to the honors of chivalry. 
In an age of darkness and degradation, chivalry de- 
veloped the character of woman, and, causing her vir- 
tues to be appreciated and honored, made her the equal 
companion of man, and the object of his devotion. 
"The love of God and the ladies," says Hallam, "was 
enjoined as a single duty. He who was faithful and 
true to his mistress was held sure of salvation in the 
theology of castles, though not of cloisters." In the 
language of another modern writer, "chivalry gave 
purity to enthusiasm, crushed barbarous selfishness, 
taught the heart to expand like a flower to the sun- 
shine, beautified glory with generosity, and smoothed 
even the rugged brow of war." A description of the 
various customs and peculiarities of chivalry, as they 



The Dark Ages. 323 

grew up by degrees into a regular institution, would 
be requisite to a full development of the character of 
the age, but we can only glance at these topics here. 
As chivalry was a military institution, its members were 
taken wholly from the military class, which comprised 
none but the descendants of the northern conquerors 
of the soil; for, with few exceptions, the original in- 
habitants of the western Roman empire had been re- 
duced to the condition of serfs, or vassals, of their 
barbarian lords. 

The initiation of the German youth to the profession 
of arms had been, from the earliest ages, an occasion 
of solemnity; and when the spirit of chivalry had es- 
tablished the order of knighthood, as the concentration 
of all that was noble and valiant in a warlike age, 
it became the highest object of every young man's 
ambition one day to be a knight. A long and tedious 
education, consisting of instruction in all manly and 
military exercises, and in the first principles of religion, 
honor and courtesy, was requisite as a preparation for 
this honor. Next, the candidate for knighthood, after 
undergoing his preparatory fasts and vigils, passed 
through the ceremonies which made him a knight. 
Armed and caparisoned he then sallied forth in quest 
of adventure, displayed his powers at tournaments, and 
often visited foreign countries, both for the purpose of 
jousting with other knights, and for instruction in 
every sort of chivalrous knowledge. It cannot be de- 
nied, however, that the practice of knight-errantry, or 
that of wandering about armed, as the avowed cham- 
pions of the right cause against the wrong, gave 



324 Ancient Empires. 

to the evil-minded a very convenient cloak for the 
basest purposes, and that every adventure, whether just 
or not in its purpose, was too liable to be esteemed hon- 
orable in proportion as it was perilous. But these 
were abuses of chivalry, and perversions of its early 
spirit. 

During the eleventh century we find that chivalry, 
although probably first appearing in Gaul, had spread 
to all the surrounding nations. In Spain the wars be- 
tween the Christians and the Moors exhibited a chiv- 
alric spirit unknown to former times. About this 
period the institution of knighthood appears to have 
been introduced among the Saxons of England ; and 
it was first made known to the Italians, in the begin- 
ning of the eleventh century, by a band of knights from 
Normandy, whose religious zeal prompted them, as 
they were returning from a pilgrimage to the Holy 
Land, to undertake the relief of a small town besieged 
by the Saracens. As the feudal system spread over 
Europe its evils were largely counteracted by the insti- 
tution of chivalry. Combined with religious enthusi- 
asm, it led to the Crusades. 

THE CRUSADES. 

So long as the caliphs, either of Bagdad or Cairo, 
governed Syria, their enlightened policy protected and 
encouraged European travelers. A quarter of Jeru- 
salem was assigned for their use, and the keys of the 
Holy Sepulcher were in their hands ; while in return 
the country was enriched by the money which they 
freely spent for relics and mementoes of the holy places. 



The Dark Ages. gas 

Syria, as the natural center of Mediterranean com- 
merce, attracted multitudes of merchants, among whom 
the Greek inhabitants of Amalfi were most numerous 
and enterprising. Their ships conveyed western pil- 
grims to the ports of Palestine, and their liberality 
endowed the church and hospital of St. John of Jeru- 
salem for their entertainment. 

During the latter half of the eleventh century the 
number of pilgrims was greatly multiplied, in spite of 
the increased peril, or rather, perhaps, in consequence 
of it. Seven thousand devotees, led by the primate of 
Germany and several of his bishops, braved the hostility 
of the Turks and visited Jerusalem, but they were glad 
to return by means of a Genoese fleet. Hildebrand 
himself prepared to lead fifty thousand volunteers to 
the rescue of Christian residents in the east from the 
hand of the infidel. 

But it was reserved for Peter, a hermit of Picardy, 
effectually to kindle that flame of martial and religious 
zeal which was to burn two centuries in Europe. He 
returned from his pilgrimage, bearing letters from the 
patriarch Symeon, of Jerusalem, to Pope Urban II 
and the whole multitude of Latin Christians, beseech- 
ing their aid. The Pope took counsel with Boemond, 
prince of Taranto, the son of Robert Guiscard. The 
Norman had inherited all his father's ambition ; in the 
fanatical scheme of the hermit he saw his own chance 
of recovering the provinces of Illyria, Macedonia and 
Greece, which, in his father's lifetime, he had wrested 
from the Eastern empire — as well as a victory for the 
pontiff over his rival, Guibert, who had been appointed 



326 Ancient Empires. 

by Henry IV, and for his comrades and followers un- 
limited wealth and dominion in the spoils of the 
Saracens and Turks. 

Peter preached the holy war throughout Italy and 
France, in streets, highways and churches ; in the palace 
and the cottage; and was everywhere received with a 
rapture of enthusiasm. The Pope himself set forth the 
claims of the East in the two councils of Piacenza and 
Clermont, where legates from the emperor, Alexis, also 
described the ravages of the infidel and appealed to the 
chivalry of Europe for the defense of the only bulwark 
of Christianity in Asia. The crowd at Clermont re- 
sponded with tears, groans, and the shout, "Dieu le 
veut" (God wills it), which became the battle cry of the 
Crusades. Thousands of every rank and age placed the 
red cross upon their shoulders, and declared their pur- 
pose to die, if need were, in the Holy Land. Even the 
mountains of Wales, Scotland, and Norway heard the 
summons and sent forth their swarms of Christian 
soldiery. Europe forgot her private feuds ; nobles sold 
or mortgaged their lands and castles ; artisans and 
peasants, their tools and implements of husbandry; 
monks exchanged the cowled robe for armor of steel ; 
serfs and debtors were released from bondage by their 
assumption of the cross ; even robbers, pirates, and 
murderers renounced their lawless life, and believed 
that they could wash away its guilt in the blood of 
infidels. 

Unhappily, the first act of the Crusaders was a perse- 
cution and massacre of the Jews in the cities on the 
Rhine. In that dark age hatred of unbelievers was 



The Dark Ages. 3-27 

deemed an essential feature of the Christian disposition, 
and the worst barbarities were committed against the 
Hebrews during the two centuries of the Holy Wars. 
The emperor, Henry IV, perhaps enlightened by his 
own experience of persecution, took these unhappy 
people under his protection, and ordered a strict resti- 
tution of their property. * 

Historians of the time assert that six millions of 
men, women, and children assumed the cross. The 
time of departure -was fixed at August 15, 1096; but 
the ignorant and unwarlike rabble, who had deserted 
their industries without foresight of the means of sub- 
sistence, did not await the appointed day. Above 60,000 
peasantry from the borders of France and Lorraine set 
forward under the guidance of Walter the Penniless, a 
brave though needy soldier ; Peter followed with 40,000 
more ; and an irregular host of 200,000 without officers, 
guides, or the slightest knowledge of the way, pressed 
upon their heels. Failing of the miraculous suppHes of 
food which they expected, they attempted to live at 
the expense of the countries through which they passed, 
and multitudes were put to death by the enraged inhab- 
itants. 

When the regular army of Crusaders arrived, a few 
months later, on the borders of Hungary, they found 
heaps of unburied corpses; to their inquiries the king 
replied that the followers of Walter and Peter were 
certainly not disciples of Christ, and that their crimes 
of rapine and murder had only been justly avenged. 
The remnant who survived were kindly received by the 
emperor Alexis; but the ruined gardens, palaces, and 



338 Ancient Empires. 

even churches of Constantinople soon testified the bar- 
barous ingratitude of his guests. Passing over into 
Asia, they were easily vanquished by Kilidge Arslan on 
the plains of Nice, and a pyramid of their bones was 
almost the sole remnant of this advanced guard of the 
crusading hosts. 

Very different was the brave and brilliant array 
which, in four columns, for the sake of more abundant 
forage, set out in the autumn of 1096. The chivalry 
of Lorraine and northeastern France were led through 
Germany, Hungary, and Bulgaria by Godfrey of Bouil- 
lon, duke of Lower Lorraine and one of the noblest 
knights in Christendom. Raymond, Count of Toulouse 
and the greatest seigneur of southern France, led his 
host through Lombardy to Aquileia, and thence 
through Dalmatia and Slavonia. Prince Boemond of 
Taranto had a sufficient fleet to transport his army 
across the Adriatic. The remaining division was led 
by four royal princes — Hugh of Vermandois, brother of 
the King of France; Robert of Normandy, eldest son 
of the King of England; another Robert, Count of 
Flanders, and Stephen of Chartres and Blois, who had 
as many castles as there are days in the year. They 
traveled the length of Italy amid the applause of the 
people, and were entrusted by Pope Urban H with 
the golden standard of St. Peter ; but their army became 
scattered in the easy and triumphant march, and the 
four princes crossed the Adriatic in a less dignified 
array than that in which they had set out. 

The emperor, Alexis, was overwhelmed by the num- 
bers, and not a little incensed by the conduct of his 



The Dark Ages. 329 

allies. All his ingenuity was taxed to prevent a meeting 
of any two of their armies before the walls of his capi- 
tal, and to expedite their departure for the Holy City. 
Their first operation was the siege of Nice, the Turkish 
capital of the kingdom of Roum, which was taken, June 
20, 1097, and restored to the empire. The Turks were 
also defeated near Dorylseum in a hard-fought battle. 
Tancred, a kinsman of Boemond, and Baldwin, brother 
of Godfrey, were then sent forward with their horse- 
men. The former captured Tarsus. Baldwin, coming 
up after it was taken, desired to plunder the town in 
violation of its terms of surrender. His quarrel with 
the just and noble Tancred brought upon him the dis- 
pleasure of all the crusaders, and, separating his own 
followers from the main army, he invaded Mesopota- 
mia on his own account. 

Edessa was then governed by a Grecian duke, who 
paid a heavy tribute to the Turks. Being childless, he 
adopted Baldwin, who as prince of Edessa threw ofif 
the Turkish yoke, made conquests among the hills of 
Armenia and the plains of Mesopotamia, and thus 
founded the first Latin sovereignty in Asia. That of 
Antioch was soon afterward gained by Boemond, prince 
of Taranto. The city withstood a seven months' siege ; 
and even when it was taken through the treachery of 
a Syrian renegade, the citadel held out, and a great 
reinforcement of Turks from Mosul reduced the Chris- 
tian army, now exhausted by famine, to the verge of 
destruction. The timely discovery of a sacred lance, 
said to have been pointed out by a vision of St. Andrew, 
animated the crusaders to new and indomitable zeal ; 



330 Ancient Empires. 

a fresh attack was made in twelve divisions in honor of 
the twelve apostles, and the Turkish host was anni- 
hilated or scattered. The emperor Alexis rejoiced 
equally in the conquest of the Turks and the exhaustion 
of the Christians. A violent plague, aggravated by the 
summer heat, destroyed more than 100,000 of the 
crusading army. 

The Fatimite caliphs of Egypt had exulted in the 
victories of the Christians over their own enemies, the 
Turks, and had availed themselves of the abasement of 
the Seljukian power to repossess Jerusalem and all Pal- 
estine. Friendly letters and embassies were sent from 
Cairo to the Latin camp ; but the leaders refused to 
make any distinction between the ferocious Turk and 
the courtly Saracen. They declared that the usurper of 
Jerusalem was their foe, whoever he might be; and 
early in the summer of 1099 the crusading host ap- 
peared before the Holy City. After three years' pil- 
grimage the first glimpse of Jerusalem was hailed with 
weeping and cries of joy. Their toils and sufferings 
were forgotten. Casting themselves on the ground, 
the pilgrims gave thanks to Heaven, and "all had much 
ado to manage so great a gladness." The millions who 
had taken the vows were now reduced to 40,000 men ; 
more than 850,000 had fallen by the way; of their 
princely leaders two had returned to Europe and two 
v/ere settled in their new principalities of Edessa and 
Antioch ; but Godfrey of Bouillon, Raymond of Tou- 
louse, Robert of Normandy, and Robert of Flanders 
pitched their respective camps on the northern and 
western sides of the city, 



The Dark Ages. 331 

Wood for the assaulting engines was brought thirty 
miles from the forests of Sichem. The siege lasted 
forty days, during which the crusaders suffered in- 
tensely from want of water. The beds of the Gihon 
and Kedron were dry, and all cisterns had been de- 
stroyed by the Turks. The Saracens had now learned 
the use of Greek fire, and in the final attack for a day 
and a half victory seemed inclining toward the besieged. 
At length, however, on Friday, July 15, the victorious 
standard of Godfrey of Bouillon was planted upon the 
wall of Jerusalem, 460 years from its conquest by the 
Saracens. In the moment of victory the ferocious pas- 
sions had sway — babes were torn from their mothers' 
arms to be dashed against the walls, and ten thousand 
Mohammedans were massacred in the Mosque of 
Omar. Then the soldiers of Christ remembered that 
they were pilgrims, and, washing themselves of the 
blood they had so pitilessly shed, they walked in peni- 
tential procession to Mount Calvary, to weep and pray 
at the tomb of their Redeemer. 

Eight days after this great event the army, by a 
unanimous vote, chose Godfrey of Bouillon to be king 
of Jerusalem and protector of Christian interests in the 
Holy Land. The office bore with it more of peril than 
of profit, and the great duke accepted it in all humility 
and faithfulness. He refused to wear a crown of gold 
in the city where his Savior had worn a crown of 
thorns, but he consented to be styled Guardian of Jeru- 
salem and Baron of the Holy Sepulcher. A code of 
laws, called the Assise of Jerusalem, was prepared by 
the most competent of the Latin pilgrims and deposited 



333 Ancient Empires. 

in the tomb on Mount Calvary. A few weeks after the 
capture of the Holy City, the Sultan of Egypt ap- 
proached with an army to retake it. He was decisively 
overthrown at Ascalon, and his sword and standard 
were hung as trophies before the Holy Sepulcher. 

The greater number of the crusaders, considering 
their vows accomplished, then returned to Europe, leav- 
ing Godfrey and Tancred with three hundred knights 
and two thousand foot soldiers to defend Palestine. 
The kingdom then consisted of only Jerusalem and 
Jaffa, with about twenty villages and towns lying in 
that region, but separated by fortresses of the Moham- 
medans. Godfrey survived his consecration but one 
year, and was succeeded by his brother, Baldwin. By 
successive conquests the Latin kingdom was extended 
east of the Euphrates and southward to the borders of 
Egypt. French law, language, titles, and customs 
reigned throughout the lands once governed by David 
and Solomon. Only four cities — Ems, Hamath, Dam- 
ascus, and Aleppo — remained to the Mohammendans 
of all their Syrian conquests. The lands were parceled 
out, according to feudal custom, into the four great 
baronies of (i) Tripoli, (2) Galilee, (3) Csesarea and 
Nazareth, (4) Jaffa and Ascalon. 

The monks of the order of St. John rendered invalu- 
able services to the crusading armies ; and in A. D. 1121 
they added military vows to those of the cloister, form- 
ing the first of three orders of chivalry which became 
the valient defenders of the Holy Land. Nobles and 
princes hastened to enroll themselves as "Knights Hos- 
pitallers," and youths were sent from all countries to be 



The Dark Ages. 333 

trained in the Hospital of St. John to the practice of 
religion and knightly virtues; twenty-eight thousand 
farms and manors were bestowed upon them in various 
countries in Christendom, and they were able to support 
a large army of horse and foot from their own revenues. 
The Templars had their origin about the same time in 
the voluntary association of nine French knights, who 
added to the usual vows of the religious orders a fourth, 
binding them to the protection of pilgrims and the 
defense of the Holy Sepulcher. Originally poor, the 
Templars, like the Hospitallers, soon became distin- 
guished by their wealth, numbers, and pride. Their 
grand master had the dignity of a sovereign prince, 
and, as the order owned allegiance to none but the 
Pope, it became an object of jealousy to the kings in 
whose realms it had possessions. The Teutonic Order 
was of somewhat later date. 

When the glorious news of the capture of Jerusalem 
arrived in Europe, Hugh of Vermandois and Stephen 
of Chartres were filled with shame and regret at having 
so soon deserted their comrades. They hastened to 
retrieve their reputation by placing themselves at the 
head of a fresh swarm of French, German, and Lom- 
bard pilgrims who had now assumed the cross; four 
hundred and twenty thousand persons set forth in 
A. D. iioi, but nearly all perished in Asia Minor from 
plague, famine, and the arrows of the Turks. 

SECOND, THIRD, AND FOURTH CRUSADES. 

Several causes in Europe and Asia combined to bring 
about a Second Crusade. The county of Edessa was 



334 Ancient Empires. 

conquered by Zenghi, a Turkish chief, and the eastern 
frontier of Palestine thus lay open to invasion. Louis 
VII of France, in war with his vassal, the Count of 
Champagne, violated his own conscience and the super- 
stition of his subjects by ordering the burning of a 
church in which many hundreds of the surrendered 
people had taken refuge. Warned by illness, he re- 
solved to expiate the crime by a pilgrimage to Jeru- 
salem, in which he was joined by his queen, the cele- 
brated Eleanor, heiress of Aquitaine. The marvelous 
eloquence of Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, at the Coun- 
cil of Vezelay, stirred all ranks and classes to redeem 
the Holy Land from falHng again into the possession 
of infidels. The emperor, Conrad III, yielded to the 
persuasions of the abbot, and his barons and people, 
who had taken little part in the First Crusade, followed 
in great multitudes. Towns were deserted, and only 
women and children were left, in many instances, to 
cultivate the land. 

The emperor, Manuel Comnenus, received his allies 
with the same plausible but deceitful policy which had 
distinguished his grandfather, Alexis. Bread sold to 
the hungry armies was mixed with chalk; the guides, 
either by secret order from the emperor or through the 
bribes of the Turks, betrayed the crusaders to their 
enemies, or led them into the deserts to perish with 
hunger and thirst. The French king, meanwhile, was 
kept inactive by the false assurances of Manuel. When 
the truth became known, Conrad and Louis joined their 
forces for the march through Asia Minor. In a battle 
on the Maeander, the French were completely vie- 



The Dark Ages. 335 

torious; but in a narrow mountain pass between 
Phrygia and Pisidia they were surprised and over- 
whelmed by the Mussuhnans. With great difficulty, 
owing to the wintry snows, want of food, and the 
refusal of the Greeks to trade, the Franks arrived at 
Attalia, where the King of France embarked for Anti- 
och, leaving the Count of Flanders to convoy the mass 
of pilgrims for whom no ships could be procured. 
Thousands were slaughtered by the Turks, and the 
count, seeing the case hopeless, escaped by sea, leaving 
his defenseless comrades to their fate. 

The army which had set out from the Rhine and 
Danube exceeded in numbers that of Godfrey of Bouil- 
lon, but its leaders arrived at Antioch with only a shat- 
tered remnant of their forces. Their first enterprise 
was against Damascus, whose power and position 
threatened the kingdom of Jerusalem. The French, 
the Germans, and the two orders of knights vied with 
each other in deeds of unexampled bravery. The prize 
was within their grasp; but in disputes between the 
Count of Flanders and the barons of the Holy Land 
the golden moment slipped away. The Saracens re- 
paired their fortifications, and the crusaders, in sorrow 
and shame, retreated to Jerusalem. The emperor soon 
returned to Europe, and the French sovereigns, with 
all their knights and gentlemen, followed in a year. 
Thus ended the Second Crusade. 

The Fatimite caliph of Cairo was dethroned, A. D. 
1 171, by a lieutenant of Noureddin, Sultan of Damas- 
cus, who was subject to the Abbassid caliph of Bagdad. 
Saladin, the most formidable foe of Christendom, was 



336 Ancient Empires. 

about to throw off his allegiance to Noureddin, when 
the latter died, and the aspiring young vizier made 
himself Sultan of Syria and Egypt. The kingdom of 
Jerusalem, which had owed its eighty-eight years' ex- 
istence to the mutual enmity of the Saracens and 
Turks, was the first to feel his power. In a two days' 
battle on the Lake of Tiberias, the Christians were 
routed, and their king, Guy of Lusignan, with the 
grand master of the Templars, the Marquis of Mont- 
ferrat, and others, were prisoners. Life was offered 
to the knights of the two orders only on condition of 
renouncing their faith, and two hundred and thirty met 
a voluntary martyrdom. In consequence of the battle 
Tiberias, Acre, Jaffa, Csesarea, and many other towns 
fell into Saladin's possession. Tyre held out, under 
the command of Conrad of Montferrat. Jerusalem, 
after a long and desperate contest, was surrendered. 

The news of the catastrophe of Tiberias and the fall 
of Jerusalem spread grief throughout Europe. The 
King of the Two Sicilies was first in arms. Philip 
Augustus of France and Henry II of England met in 
Normandy to concert measures for the Third Crusade. 
The aged emperor, Frederic Barbarossa, summoned a 
diet at Mentz, in which he himself, with his son and 
eighty-eight spiritual and temporal lords, assumed the 
cross. Throughout Europe a tenth of all movable prop- 
erty, known as the "Saladine Tithe," was levied upon 
Jews and Christians for the expense of the wars. Pass- 
ing the Hellespont without deigning to visit Constan- 
tinople, the Emperor Frederic defeated the Turks and 
captured Iconium, their capital ; but he was drowned in 



The Dark Ages. 337 

the Cydnus, and the hardships of the march reduced 
the German host to one-tenth of its original numbers 
long before it arrived at Acre. Some soldiers of 
Bremen and Lubec, moved by the sufferings of their 
comrades here, converted their tents into a hospital; 
and the Duke of Suabia founded the Order of Teutonic 
Knights, who, combining the charities of the Hospital- 
lers with the chivalric vow of the Templars, bound 
themselves to the relief of the sick and the defense of 
the holy places.. 

The Christians of Palestine had mustered all their 
forces for the recapture of Acre, which, as a strongly 
fortified port, was an important medium of supplies 
from Europe. Guy of Lusignan, whom Saladin had 
released from prison, perhaps on purpose to divide the 
counsels of the Franks, had at one time 100,000 men 
at his command ; but the death of his wife and children, 
for whose sake alone the crown had been conferred 
upon him, undermined the authority which his crimes 
and weaknesses of character had always rendered irk- 
some to his subjects. His sister-in-law, Isabel, a 
younger daughter of Almeric married Conrad of Mont- 
ferrat now Prince of Tyre, a nobleman of great and 
deserved popularity, who became the successful candi- 
date for the crown of Jerusalem. 

The siege lagged until the arrival of the French and 
English forces, led by their respective kings. Richard I 
had just received the crown of England upon the death 
of his father, Henry H, and the fame of his courage 
and strength gave new spirit to the besiegers. Two 
years from its investment the city feH, July, 1191. 



338 Ancient Empires. 

The Duke of Austria planted his banner, in common 
with the French and EngHsh chiefs, on part of the 
walls, but Richard tore it down with his own hands 
and threw it into the ditch — an insult which led to a 
fierce and lasting quarrel between the two princes. 
The King of France, either disgusted by the superior 
fame of Richard, or really ill, as he alleged, soon 
returned to Europe, leaving a large portion of his 
forces with the Duke of Burgundy to serve under the 
English king. He solemnly swore that he would not 
molest the dominions of the latter during his engage- 
ment in the Holy Wars ; but, pausing at Rome to be 
absolved by the Pope from this inconvenient vow, he 
had no sooner set foot in France than he began to 
plot with John — the brother of Richard and re-gent 
of England in his absence — to possess himself of the 
French counties and duchies for which Richard was 
his vassal, John being encouraged to assume the Eng- 
lish crown as the reward of his compliance. Though 
rumors of these treacherous movements reached Pal- 
estine, the English king stayed to refortify Jaffa, 
Ascalon, and Gaza, working with his own hands like 
a common soldier, while bishops and the highest nobles, 
urged by his example, carried earth and mortar, and 
aided in building the walls. The united army ap- 
proached within sight of Jerusalem, where Saladin 
was posted; but the prudence or the treachery of the 
Duke of Burgundy prevented an attack, and Richard, 
covering his face with a shield, refused, wi^h grief 
and shame, to look upon a city which he was unable 
to deliver from the infidel. 



The Dark Ages. 339 

He consented to the crowning of Conrad of Mont- 
ferrat as King of Jerusalem,, indemnifying Guy of 
Lusignan, the deposed sovereign, by a generous gift 
of Cyprus, which Richard himself had conquered from 
Isaac Comnenus on his way to the Holy Land. Conrad 
died before his coronation, and Count Henry of Cham- 
pagne succeeded to the empty title, which he bore, 
A. D- 1192-1197. On the eve of his departure for 
Europe, the English king signalized his valor by a 
new exploit, which terrified the Saracens and secured 
for the Christians a more advantageous peace. Saladin, 
by a rapid movement, had possessed himself of Jaffa. 
The great tower still held out, but the patriarch and 
knights had promised to surrender the next morning, 
unless succor should arrive. The English squadron 
appeared in time; Richard was the first to leap on 
shore, and so furious was his onset, that the Mussul- 
mans broke up their camp and retreated some miles 
into the country. Learning with shame that they had 
been driven by only five hundred men, they endeavored 
in a night attack to regain their advantage, but Richard, 
with ten knights in full armor, issuing suddenly from 
the Christian tents, renewed the panic; and Saladin, 
now exhausted by a long series of battles, consented to 
an honorable truce of three years and eight months. 
The sea-coast from Tyre to Jaffa was surrendered to 
the Christians, and pilgrims from Europe were guaran- 
teed safety and freedom from imposition in their visits 
to the Holy Sepulcher. The barons whose estates had 
been conquered by the Saracens were indemnified by 
grants of towns and castles. 



340 Ancient Empires. 

Arriving in the Mediterranean, opposite the French 
coast, Richard learned that the feudal lords of that 
region had resolved to seize him if he landed on their 
territory. Unable to proceed to England in his unsea- 
worthy vessel, he turned toward Germany, and, guided 
by some pirates, landed at Zara. He wished to traverse 
Germany in disguise, but he was identified and impris- 
oned by his old enemy, the Duke of Austria, who sur- 
rendered him the next spring to the emperor, Henry 
VI. Before the Diet at Haguenau, Richard was 
accused of several grave offenses, but he defended 
himself with such eloquence that all but the most 
prejudiced were convinced of his innocence. He re- 
ceived the investiture of the kingdom of Aries, and 
voted as a prince of the empire in the next imperial 
election. During his enforced absence from England 
his brother made new eftorts to seize the crown, while 
Philip of France invaded Normandy, and both per- 
jured princes offered large sums of money to the 
emperor to keep Richard in perpetual captivity or 
deliver him into their hands. The disgraceful bargain 
might have been sealed but for the indignant protest 
of the German princes, who compelled Henry VI to 
accept the ransom offered by the English Parliament 
for the liberation of the king. He was released after 
long delays, and landed at Sandwich fifteen months 
from his capture and five years from his departure for 
the Holy Wars. The share of the Duke of Austria in his 
ransom money went to enrich the newly founded city 
of Vienna. 

During the captivity of Richard, his great enemy, 



The Dark Ages. 341 

Saladin, had died in Palestine, A. D. 1193. His three 
sons became suUans of Aleppo, Damascus, and Egypt ; 
but his brother, Saphadin, ruled the greater part of 
Syria. A. fresh crusade was undertaken by the German 
princes and bishops who were joined on their march 
by the widowed Queen of Hungary. The dukes of 
Saxony and Lower Lorraine defeated Saphadin be- 
tween Tyre and Sidon, thus liberating many 
cities and 9,000 Christian captives. Another 
victory was followed by the news of the emper- 
or's death, and the sudden departure for Germany of 
all the princes who, by vote or influence, could hope to 
afifect the choice of his successor. Saphadin, rallying 
his forces, recaptured Jaffa, and put every inhabitant to 
the sword. The great expedition, having thus failed, 
is not commonly numbered among the Crusades. 

A Fourth Crusade was proclaimed, A. D. 1200, by 
Innocent HI, who imposed upon the clergy through- 
out Europe a tax for the expenses of the war. Prin- 
ces and people joined their offerings. Those who could 
not go to Palestine in person commuted their service 
into money, and the treasury of the Vatican over- 
flowed. Thibaud, Count of Champagne, brother of 
the late King of Jerusalem, was among the first to 
assume the cross, and a council of French 
barons met at Soissons to deliberate upon the 
means of fulfilling their vow. The horrors of a land 
journey into Asia were already too well proven; but 
the feudal lords had not, like Richard or Philip Augus- 
tus, the resource of a national navy. It was, therefore, 
resolved to engage the aid of Venice, then the greatest 



342 Ancient Empires. 

inaritime power in Europe. A treaty was made be- 
tween the deputies of the barons and the Grand Council 
of the republic for the transportation of the troops in 
Venetian vessels, Venice herself becoming an ally in 
the war and an equal sharer in the prizes. 

Soon after Easter, A. D. 1202, the French crusaders 
crossed Mount Cenis and assembled at Venice. Some 
delay occurring in the prepayment of the transporta- 
tion money, Doge Dandolo secured their aid in the 
recovery of Zara, on the Dalmatian coast, which had 
revolted to Hungary. Feeble and nearly blind, at the 
age of ninety-four, the Doge led the expedition in per- 
son and gained a complete victory. But a more bril- 
liant enterprise, tempted the French and Venetian arms. 
Isaac Angelus, Emperor of the East, had been de- 
throned, imprisoned, and deprived of his eyes by an 
unnatural brother, whom he had himself redeemed 
from Turkish slavery. His son, Alexis, escaped and 
found refuge with his brother-in-law, the Duke of 
Suabia. Appearing before the French and Italian 
leaders in their camp at Zara, the envoys of Alexis 
besought their aid in restoring his father to the throne, 
promising in return the co-operation of the Greeks in 
the conquest of the Holy Land. 

The Pope forbade this diversion of forces which 
were consecrated to the deliverance of Palestine ; but 
the knights resolved to turn so far aside from their 
original purpose in order to make good their character 
as champions of justice and avengers of wrong. By 
two attacks Constantinople was taken, and the blind 
old emperor was drawn from his dungeon and replaced 



The Dark Ages. 343 

upon the throne in partnership with his son, Alexis. 
The season being far advanced, the French and Vene- 
tians consented to winter at Constaixtinople, and aid 
to estabhsh more firmly the power which they had 
restored. A brawl between the inhabitants and the 
Flemish soldiers ended in a conflagration, which con- 
tinued eight days and consumed three miles of densely 
populated dwellings. Alexis, who was disliked by his 
own subjects for his alliance with the Franks, offended 
the latter by vacillation and delay in the payment of 
the promised subsidies, and a fresh war broke out. 
The guards of the palace set up an emperor of their 
own in the person of Alexis Mourzoufle, a kinsman of 
the imperial family distinguished for his hatred of 
the Latins. Alexis Angelus was imprisoned, and his 
blind father died of terror. 

The French and Venetians now united for a second 
capture of the city. It was taken, and houses, churches, 
even the tombs of the emperors, were despoiled in a 
mad riot of pillage. Sculptures preserved from the 
golden age of Grecian art were destroyed by barbarians 
too ignorant to discern their value — if of marble, they 
were hacked to pieces ; if of bronze, they were melted 
into coin or household utensils. The Venetians, some- 
what more civilized than the French, reserved the 
four bronze horses of Lysippus to adorn their church 
of St. Mark. After paying their long deferred debt 
to their allies, the French had a sum left from their 
share of the plunder which equaled seven times the 
yearly revenue of England at that time. 

Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was chosen by the two 



344 Ancient Empires. 

conquering nations to be Emperor of the East. Only 
one-fourth of the dominion of the Comneni fell to 
his share, the rest being divided between the Vene- 
tians, Lombards, and French. The Latin Empire at 
Constantinople lasted fifty-seven years, during which 
the Roman ritual superseded that of the Greeks in the 
churches, and the laws of Jerusalem were imposed upon 
the people in contempt of the code of Basil and Leo 
VL Fragments of the conquered empire were erected 
into rival states by members of the deposed family, 
who reigned at Nice, at Trebizond, and in northern 
Greece; and in A. D. 1261, Michael Palaeologus, the 
Nicaean emperor, aided by the mutual rivalries of the 
Genoese and Venetians, expelled the sixth of the usur- 
pers, and recovered the throne of the Caesars. Most 
of the Archipelago and Greece proper remained many 
years longer in the feudal control of the Latins. 

Few of those who took arms for the Fourth Cru- 
sade ever reached the Holy Land ; but the conquest of 
Constantinople so alarmed the Mussulmans that Sap- 
hadin hastened by liberal concessions to secure a six 
years' truce. 

The continuance of the fanatical spirit in Europe 
was shown by the Children's Crusade, A. D. 121 1. A 
superstition gained ground, especially in Germany, that 
the princes and soldiery were forbidden to possess the 
Holy Land because of their sins, and that the great 
honor was reserved for the innocent and the weak. 
Ninety thousand children are said to have assembled 
from the various towns and hamlets, and, led only by 
a child, to have advanced as far as Genoa. Here they 



The Dark Ages. - 345 

found the sea, of which they had never heard, and, 
separating, some took ship, only to fall into the hands 
of Moorish pirates, and the rest wandered about until 
they perished of hunger or fatigue. Probably not one 
of the deluded host ever reached Palestine, or even 
regained his home. 

THE LAST OF THE CRUSADES. 

By the death of Almeric of Lusignan and his wife, 
A. D. 1206, the shadowy crown of Jerusalem rested 
again upon a young girl's head; and as no nobleman 
in Palestine was judged worthy to share that slight 
but perilous honor, John of Brienne, a favorite of the 
King of France, was designated as the husband of 
Mary, daughter of Isabella and Conrad of Montferrat. 
He was accompanied from Europe by three hundred 
knights, the whole contribution of Christendom at that 
time toward the recovery of the Holy Sepulcher. Eng- 
land was absorbed by dissensions between her king 
and barons ; France, by a crusade against her own 
people, the Albigenses of the south ; and Germany, by 
the struggle between the emperor and the Pope for 
the dominion of Italy. 

The new King of Jerusalem appealed for aid, and 
Innocent III issued a stirring exhortation to all west- 
ern Christendom. The eloquence of his preachers was 
seconded by the songs of poets, who had not only pious, 
but patriotic motives for urging the foreign expedition. 
Their sovereign and most munificent patron was the 
Count of Toulouse, with whom, as a protector of 
heretics, the King of France was at war ; and they 



346- Ancient Empires. 

naturally desired to divert the assaults of bigotry from 
their own countrymen to the Saracens. The vanguard 
of the Fifth Crusade was led by the nation which had 
most obstructed the first. Andrew II of Hungary, 
incited by his father's wish and his mother's example, 
took the cross, and was joined by all the lay and 
spiritual lords of southern Germany. But he accom- 
plished personally little more than a multitude of pil- 
grimages and the collection of innumerable relics ; and 
then, in spite of the entreaties of his allies, he returned 
to his impoverished kingdom. 

Egypt was now the heart of the Moslem power, 
and thither a second army of Germans directed their 
efforts. They took the fortress of Damietta by as- 
sault, and besieged the town. Many obstinate battles 
were fought ; the places of the exhausted besiegers 
were filled by recruits from England and the free cities 
of Italy ; and at length the city was taken. A hideous 
spectacle met the eyes of the conquerors. Hunger and 
pestilence had reduced the 70,000 inhabitants to 3,000, 
and the survivors were more like animated skeletons 
than like living beings. In the attempt to complete 
the conquest of Egypt, the invaders were in turn van- 
quished by the great natural force which has served in 
all ages both for the nourishment and protection of 
that country. The rising Nile was turned into the 
Latin camp, tents and baggage were swept away, and 
all communication with Damietta cut off. In this peri- 
lous position the papal legate was reduced humbly to 
beg for far less favorable terms than he had once 
haughtily rejected. Damietta was surrendered; the 



The Dark Ages. 347 

starving hosts of Christendom were fed from the 
granaries of the Sultan, and permitted to march into 
Syria. 

The emperor, Frederic II, had been excommuni- 
cated for his delay in joining the crusade, and when 
in A. D. 1227 he at length embarked, he was excom- 
municated again for presuming to go without permis- 
sion. He was welcomed, however, by the Teutonic 
knights, and cautiously joined by the Hospitallers and 
Templars. His personal influence effected more than 
even the battle-ax of Coeur de Lion; for Jerusalem, 
Jaffa, Bethlehem, and Nazareth were ceded to the 
Christians. Accompanied only by his courtiers and 
the Teutonic knights, Frederic crowned himself in the 
Church of the Holy Sepulcher, since no priest would 
perform that office. John of Brienne, with the hand 
of his daughter, Violante, had conferred upon the 
emperor his own right to the crown of Jerusalem ; but 
returning to Europe he did not hesitate, in the service 
of the Pope, to ravage the Italian territories of his 
son-in-law. 

The emperor being thus recalled from Palestine, the 
truce which he had made was disregarded, and on one 
occasion 10,000 pilgrims were massacred on the road 
to Jerusalem. The Templars sustained a severe de- 
feat upon the death of the Sultan of Aleppo, with 
whom they were at peace. Every commandery in 
Christendom hastened to send reinforcements ; a fresh 
crusade was announced by the Council at Spoleto, and 
the new orders of Dominican and Franciscan monks 
became the bearers of its decrees to all parts of Europe. 



348 Ancient Empires. 

The purpose was, as before, to fill the coffers of the 
Church with commutation money; and when Richard, 
Earl of Cornwall, brother of the English king, as- 
sumed the cross in sincerity, the Pope forbade his 
embarkation at Dover, and tried to intercept him at 
Marseilles. On the arrival at Jaffa of the English 
prince and nobles, the Sultan of Egypt sent to propose 
terms of peace. The greater part of Palestine was 
surrendered to the Christians ; the walls of Jerusalem 
were rebuilt, and the churches reconsecrated. The 
objects of the expedition having been secured by peace- 
ful negotiation, it is by most writers not reckoned in the 
number of the Crusades. 

But another foe, equally terrible to Saracens and 
Christians, now appeared from the northeast, in the 
Tartar hordes expelled from Khorasmia by Zenghis 
Khan, and who, sweeping over Palestine, captured 
Jerusalem and murdered most of its inhabitants. The 
Templars called in their Syrian allies, and the com- 
bined armies fought for two days a fierce battle with 
the pagans, only to be overthrown and annihilated. The 
two grand masters of the Templars and Hospitallers 
were slain, and only fifty-two knights of all three 
orders remained alive and free. Barbacan, the Tartar 
chief, was slain, however, in a general battle, and 
southern Asia was relieved for the moment from its 
panic and distress. 

The Seventh Crusade was led by the good king, 
Louis IX of France, accompanied by his three broth- 
ers, the counts of Artois, Poitiers, and Anjou. 
Having wintered in Cyprus, Louis sailed to Egypt. 



The Dark Ages. 349 

Damietta, though strongly fortified, made no resist- 
ance, and all its magazines of grain were added to 
the stock of the crusaders ; but in their march toward 
Cairo, the French were arrested by the canal of 
Ashmoum. The Count of Artois, discovering a ford, 
led his followers through, routed the Mussulmans who 
were posted on the opposite bank, and paused not until 
he had entered the half-deserted town of Massourah 
Here the Moslems rallied and joined battle in the 
streets of the town. The concealed inhabitants flung 
stones, boiling water, and burning- coals from their 
roofs upon the heads of the assailants. The arrival 
of the French king prevented a total rout; but the 
death of his brother, with the grand master of 
the Templars and a multitude of knights, paid the 
penalty of their rashness. The retreat was more dis- 
astrous than the battle. All the sick in the French 
camp were murdered by the Mussulmans; the king 
himself was made prisoner with his two remaining 
brothers, all the nobles, and 20,000 men of lower rank. 

The city of Damietta was surrendered for the king's 
ransom. He then proceeded to Palestine, where he 
spent four years in seeking to establish that good order 
which his just and beneficent reign had already con- 
ferred upon France. No military successes attended 
his crusade. The death of the queen regent recalled 
him to his own kingdom ; and he sacrificed his strong 
desire to visit Jerusalem to the feeling that a king 
in arms had no right to behold as a pilgrim what he 
could not possess as a conqueror. 

If the Christians of Palestine could have remained 



350 Ancient Empires. 

at peace among themselves, they might have been 
victorious over -the common enemy ; but the Itahan 
merchants of the various cities never forgot their rival- 
ries, and the jealousy of the two military brotherhoods 
broke out, soon after the Seventh Crusade, into actual 
war. The knights of St. John were the victors in a 
battle from which scarcely a Templar escaped alive. 
This shameful war was interrupted by the invasion 
of Palestine, by Mamelukes from Egypt. Nine- 
ty Hospitallers held Azotus, and died to the 
last man in its defense. The Templars at Saphoury were 
forced to capitulate ; but, contrary to the terms of sur- 
render, they were afterward required to choose be- 
tween apostasy and death. The knights and garrison, 
to the number of 600 men, sealed their faith with their 
blood. Jaffa and Beaufort were taken; Antioch was 
surrendered after 17,000 of its people had been slain 
and 100,000 made prisoners. 

The news in Europe of the fall of Antioch occa- 
sioned an Eighth Crusade. Prince Edward of Eng- 
land, with the powerful earls of Pembroke and War- 
wick, assumed the cross. King Louis of France 
heartily joined in the alliance ; but his first, and as it 
proved his last, hostilities were directed against the 
Moors of Tunis. His brother, Charles, Count of 
Anjou, and now King of the Two Sicilies, urged this 
enterprise for selfish reasons, for northern Africa had 
formerly paid tribute to the Neapolitan kingdom. 
Carthage was taken and plundered, but the army was 
stricken by the plague, which carried ofif the king 
and one of his sons. Prince Edward arrived the 



The Dark Ages. 351 

next spring in Palestine, where the name of Plan- 
tagenet mustered around him all the European forces. 
Nazareth was taken, the Turks were defeated, and a 
truce for ten years was already concluded with the 
Sultan of Egypt, when the death of Henry III in 
England required the return of the prince to assume 
his crown. 

The last general effort for the deliverance of the 
Holy Land, though enrolling many great names, was 
feeble in its execution and disastrous in its results, and 
is not commonly numbered among the Crusades. Ru- 
dolph of Hapsburg, the new Emperor of the West, 
Michael Palaeologus, the conqueror and successor of 
the last Latin Emperor of the East, and Charles, the 
French King of the Two Sicilies, were partners in 
the enterprise. The latter received from Mary, Prin- 
cess of Antioch, a surrender of her hereditary claim to 
the crown of Jerusalem. Hugh, King of Cyprus, was, 
however, crowned at Tyre, and disputes for this un- 
substantial dignity had their part in defeating the 
counsels of the allies. Margat was captured by the 
Turks, A. D. 1280. Tripoli, the seat of the last re- 
maining barony of the Christians in Asia, was taken, 
and its people murdered or enslaved. Acre was almost 
the only refuge of Europeans, and its several wards 
or districts were assigned to miserable fugitives from 
the lost cities and provinces, who could not forget their 
jealousies even in their common distress. 

The Sultan of Egypt mustered all his forces to 
destroy this last nucleus of Christianity in the East, 
and 200,000 Mamelukes were assembled for the siege 



352 Ancient En^pires. 

of Acre. The defense was long and obstinate; the 
principal entrance to the city was repeatedly lost andi 
won, and each time at great expense of Moslem and 
Christian blood ; but at length the grand master of the 
Templars, who had been intrusted with the command, 
was slain with most of his followers, the town was 
in flames, and the seven knights who alone survived 
of the Order of St. John embarked for Europe. The 
unarmed people who could not escape by sea perished 
on the shore. Tyre, Beirut, and other towns surren- 
dered. All Palestine was overrun by the Turks, and 
after a few more efforts by the Templars, it was aban- 
doned to the Moslem dominion. 

Though the hope of delivering the Holy Land lin- 
gered several centuries in the minds of European 
princes, and though some private enterprises were un- 
dertaken with that purpose, no general and public 
effort was renewed. Fifteen years from the fall of 
Acre, a new crusade was proclaimed by Pope Clement 
V, but few of those who assembled at Brindisi knew 
its object, which was merely to conquer the island of 
Rhodes from the Greeks and Saracens for a permanent 
residence of the knights of St. John. The thousands 
of Europeans who remained in Palestine after the 
withdrawal of the princes and military orders, became 
so mingled with the. Mohammedans that no distinction 
of faith or nationality was long to be perceived. The 
Venetians made a treaty of friendship with the Mus- 
sulmans of Egypt, and received in Alexandria a 
church, a magazine, and an exchange, where they 
carried on a disgraceful traffic in Georgian and Circas- 



The Dark Ages. 353 

sian slaves. The Genoese possessed extensive streets 
and warehouses in Constantinople, with the control of 
the commerce of the Black Sea. 

Though failing in their immediate object, the Cru- 
sades had most important and widely reaching results. 
Europe, divided by the feudal system into a multitude 
of petty sovereignties, was then first united in the only 
bond that could equally hold kings, nobles, peasants, 
and priests. To defray the cost of their equipment, 
many princes had sold their estates, and these, though 
usually absorbed by the Church, were sometimes 
bought by common citizens, whose importance as indi- 
viduals and as a class was thus greatly increased. On 
the crusaders themselves, contact with unfamiliar cus- 
toms had something of its natural effect in enlarging 
the mind and rendering it tolerant of new ideas. Con- 
stantinople, then the grandest and most beautiful city 
in the world, produced, even in its decline, the same 
effect upon the western that old Rome had upon the 
northern barbarians — the impression of a society, 
though enervated and decaying, yet far more enlight- 
ened and advanced than their own. 

In the historians who accompanied the several expe- 
ditions may be seen the contrast between the narrow 
views of the first crusaders and the more courteous 
and liberal sentiments of their successors. The earlier 
chroniclers describe the "infidel dogs" as monsters, 
and exult in the most inhuman atrocities inflicted upon 
their defenseless wives and children; the later writers 
mention some Mussulmans with admiration, and hold 
up the delicate generosity of Saladin as a rebuke to 
the barbarity of so-called Christians. 



354 Ancient Empires. 

Extensive intercourse between Ihe East and the 
West resulted from the Crusades. India and China, 
long the abode of high civilization, had hitherto con- 
tributed nothing of importance to the general stock 
of ideas and comforts, owing to their isolation 
at the extreme circumference of the land hemis- 
phere. The consequences of increased commu- 
nication will very soon be seen in the adoption 
of eastern inventions, which changed the whole 
current of European life. Mongol embassa- 
dors were seen in the cities of Europe; and 
Italians, French, and Flemings visited the court of 
the Grand Khan. A Tartar made helmets for 
the French army of Philip the Fair. Venetian 
merchants — among them the father of Marco Polo — 
resided for years in China and Tartary, and established 
trade with Hindustan. The narrow circle of Euro- 
pean ideas was- widened to include the art and lan- 
guages of Asia, and their influence may be traced in 
the rise of the modern literatures in Europe. 

Of the three orders of knights founded during the 
Crusades, the Templars, having no longer use for their 
ample revenues, became luxurious, haughty, and dan- 
gerous to settled governments; the Hospitallers, being 
on garrison duty against the Turks, successively in 
Cyprus, Rhodes, and Malta, retained their chivalrous 
and active life ; the Teutonic knights found a still more 
stirring field of combat with the heathenism of north- 
ern Europe. Prussia was still pagan, and her fierce 
warriors were even fanatical in their aversion to Chris- 
tianity. Herman von Salza, the illustrious grand mas- 



The Dark Ages. 355 

ter, accepted with joy the invitation of the northern 
bishops. Building themselves a fort at Marienburg, 
the knights began their arduous task both by preaching 
and by fighting. More than half a century elapsed 
before the spirit of resistance was broken, and still an- 
other century before Christianity was firmly estab- 
lished. 

In the intervals of war the knights redeemed the 
marshy country by embankments, and replaced the salt 
quagmires with grassy and fertile meadows. Mean- 
while the order became the rallying point for all chiv- 
alry of Germany. It absorbed into itself the Sword 
Brothers and other military fraternities, and was vic- 
torious not only in Prussia, but in Livonia, Courland, 
and Lithuania. Its near neighborhood to Pomerania 
and the kingdom of Poland led, however, to disastrous 
wars, and eventually to its decline. Following this 
came the birth and growth of modern civilization. 



